Critical assessment of pendimethalin in terms of persistence, bioaccumulation, toxicity, and potential for long-range transport

Figures & data

Figure 1. Structure of pendimethalin.

Table 1. Key properties of pendimethalin used in this assessment.

Property	Value
Molecular weight	281.3
Vapor pressure	1.94 × 10^–3 Pa at 25°C
Henry’s law constant	2.728 × 10^–3 (kPa × m^3 /mol) 25°C
Solubility in water	pH 4: 0.54 mg L^−1 at 20°C
	pH 7: 0.33 mg L^−1 at 20°C
	pH 10: 0.44 mg L^−1 at 20°C
Partition coefficient (log KOW)	pH 7: log KOW = 5.2
Log KOC (geometric mean; see SI)	Log KOC = 4.11
Acid–base dissociation constant (pKa)	2.8
Hydrolytic stability (DT50)	Stable from pH 4 to 9 (>5 d, 50°C)
Photostability in water (DT50)	DT50 = 21 d (under 24-h daily exposure) pH not stated
Data from (European Community 2003)

Table 2. Summary statistics for laboratory soil aerobic degradation studies.

Statistics	DT50 (d), normalizeda
	All soils	Relevant soils
Count	7	5
Geometric mean	129.9	97.5
Median	146	97
Std. dev.	91.2	62.6
CV	59%	56%

^a See Table SI-3 for additional details.

Table 3. Summary of DT50 values for pendimethalin from field studies in soil.

Statistics	DT50 (d), FOCUS, nonnormalized^a	DT50 (d), normalized
Arithmetic mean	93.9	109.7
Geometric mean	83.2	72.0
Median	87.1	66.0
SD	47.6	114.1
CV	0.51	1.04

^aSee Table SI-5 for additional details and citations; n = 19 soil types.

Table 4. Summary statistics for the results of water/sediment studies with pendimethalin.

Statistics	DT50 total system (d)^a	DisT50 water (d)
Arithmetic mean	36.4	0.86
Geometric mean	19.7	0.75
Median	20.3	0.80
SD	41.5	0.47
CV	1.14	0.55

^aSee Table SI-7 for additional details and citations; n = 8 tests.

Table 5. Bioaccumulation/biomagnification endpoints for pendimethalin in aquatic organisms.

Species	BCF^a	Kinetic corrected	Growth corrected	Lipid normalized	Reference
Oncorhynchus mykiss	931	Y	Y	Y	(BASF 2013f)
Danio rerio	1138	Y	Y	Y	(BASF 2003)
Lepomis macrochirus	3300	Y	N	N	(American Cyanamid 1986)
Ictalurus punctatus	1446	N	N	N	(American Cyanamid 1974)
Geometric mean of the BCFs in fish	1878
Procambarus simulans	9.1	N	N	N	(American Cyanamid 1980)
Procambarus clarkii	1.02	N	N	N	(BASF 2005)
Daphnia	35	N	N	N	(Isensee and Dubey 1983)
Helisoma sp.	145	N	N	N	(Isensee and Dubey 1983)
Gambusia affinis	20	N	N	N	(Isensee and Dubey 1983)
Eisenia fetida (soil)	<1	N	N	N	(BASF 2000)
Bufo americanus (soil)	<1	N	N	N	(Van Meter et al. 2016)
	BMF
Oncorhynchus mykiss	0.040	Y	Y	Y	(BASF 2013f)
Lepomis macrochirus	0.105	Y	Y	Y	(BASF 2013h)
	BSAF	OC/lipid corrected
Tubifex tubifex	0.5	N			(BASF 2016)
Tubifex tubifex (PND metabolites)	2.6	Y			(BASF 2016)
Tubifex tubifex	0.6	N			(BASF 2016)
Tubifex tubifex (PND metabolites)	3.3	Y			(BASF 2016)
	TMF
Algae/Daphnia	0.16				(Isensee and Dubey 1983)
Daphnia/Gambusia	0.7				(Isensee and Dubey 1983)
Vegetation-caribou-wolf food chain in the Canadian Arctic	Not observed	N	N	Y	(Morris et al. 2014; 2016)

^aSee SI for more detailed discussion of the data.

Table 6. Acute toxicity for pendimethalin in invertebrates and fish.

Scientific name of species	LC50 (μg/L)	Duration (h)	Design	Reference
Invertebrates
Daphnia magna	>1000	48	Static	(American Cyanamid 1981)
Daphnia magna	400	48	Static	(BASF 2001f)
Penaeus duorarum	1600	96	Static	(Mai et al. 2013)
Crassostrea virginica	210	48	Static	(American Cyanamid 2000a)
Geometric mean	580
Fish
Pimephales promelas	>240	96	Flow-through	(BASF 2010a)
Pimephales promelas	332	144	Flow-through (non GLP)	(American Cyanamid 1993)
Pimephales promelas	137	14 d	Flow-through (non GLP)	(American Cyanamid 1993)
Ictalurus punctatus	418	96	Static	(American Cyanamid 1972)
Cyprinodon variegatus	707	96	Static	(American Cyanamid 1983)
Oncorhynchus mykiss	890	96	Static	(American Cyanamid 2000c)
Oncorhynchus mykiss	138	96	Static	(American Cyanamid 1972)
Geometric mean	344

Table 7. Toxicity for pendimethalin in algae and aquatic plants from the open literature.

Scientific name of species	EC50 (μg/L)	EC10 (μg/L)	Duration (h)	Reference
Chlorella vulgaris	281	85	96	(Ma et al. 2002)
Chlorella pyrenoidosa	394	14	96	(Ma 2002)
Scenedesmus obliquus	490	137	96	(Ma 2002)
Raphidocelis subcapitata	179	34	96	(Ma et al. 2006)
Lemna minor^a	634	90	168	(Cedergreen et al. 2005)
Scenedesmus vacuolatus	240	69	24	(Junghans et al. 2006)
Geometric mean	342	49

^aAll EC50s based on yield (number of cells) except for L. minor, which was based on growth rate. The data are homogeneous so the use of the geometric mean was judged to be appropriate.

Table 8. Chronic toxicity values for pendimethalin in algae and aquatic plants from BASF studies.

Scientific name of species	EC50 (μg/L)	EC10 (μg/L)	Duration (h)	Calculation of EC50	Reference
Skeletonema costatum	13	4	72		(American Cyanamid 1992a) with (BASF 2013a)
Raphidocelis subcapitata [formerly Selenastrum capricornutum]	32 (GM of 24, 34, 41)	9.4 (13, 4, 16)	72 and 120	Geometric mean of three separate studies	(American Cyanamid 1992e) with (BASF 2013b), (American Cyanamid 2000d), (American Cyanamid 1992d) with (BASF 2013b)
Navicula pelliculosa	35	12.2	120		(American Cyanamid 1992b) with (BASF 2013d)
Scenedesmus subspicatus	55	Not given	120	Raw data not available, 72-h EC50 not calculated	(Cyanamid International Corp 1985)
Anabaena flos-aquae	> 174	174	120	No effect at the highest concentration tested	(American Cyanamid 1992c)
Lemna minor	102	3.2 (LOEC)	14 d		(BASF 2002a)
Lemna gibba	43	7.5	7 d		(BASF 2013g)
Geometric mean	49	11	The data are homogeneous so the use of the geometric mean was judged to be appropriate

Table 9. Chronic toxicity values for pendimethalin in invertebrates and fish.

Scientific name of species	NOEC (μg/L)	Duration (d)	Design	Reference
Daphnia magna	15	21	Flow-through	(American Cyanamid 1981)
Chironomus riparius	138	30	Static	(American Cyanamid 1994b)
Oncorhynchus mykiss	50	21	Static renewal	(American Cyanamid 1994a)
Pimephales promelas	22–36	288	Full life cycle. Flow-through (non GLP)	(American Cyanamid 1993)
Danio rerio	50	184	Full life cycle, static	(BASF 2001e)
Danio rerio	20	179	Full life cycle, static sediment present	(AGAN 2012)
Geometric mean	43	The data are homogeneous and the responses in the full life cycle studies are based on the early life-stage so the use of the geometric mean was judged to be appropriate

Table 10. Summary of the results obtained in the cosm studies (without fish).

Test system	Duration (d)	Endpoints (μg/L)a	Reference
Aquatic community in outdoor cosm	128	NOEC = 0.23	(BASF 2001b)
		LOEC = 1.1
		NOEAEC = 150
		NOEAEC (conserv.) = 4.9
Aquatic community in outdoor cosm	70	NOAEC = 10	(BASF 2004a)
Aquatic community in outdoor cosm	84	NOEC = 1	(BASF 2008)
		NOEAEC = 16
Aquatic community in outdoor cosm	140	NOEC = 3.8	(BASF 2010b)
		NOEAEC = 46

Note. See SI for detailed discussion of the data from the mesocosms.

^aNOEC = no observed effect concentration; LOEC = lowest observed effect concentration; NOEAEC = no observed ecologically adverse effect concentration.

Table 11. Results from models and model scenarios for atmospheric and aquatic transport of PND.

Emission to	Model	POV (d)	CTD in air (km)	CTD in water (km)	Surface transfer efficiency (%)
Air	OECD Tool 20°C	0	87	–	1.28 × 10^–5
Water	OECD Tool 20°C	93	–	160	5.58 × 10^–6
Soil	OECD Tool 20°C	60	–	–	2.33 × 10^–6
Air	ELPOS 20°C	1	89	–	–
Water	ELPOS 20°C	32	–	96	–
Soil	ELPOS 20°C	104	–	–	–
Air	ELPOS 12°C	1	126	–	–
Water	ELPOS 12°C	51		139	–
Soil	ELPOS 12°C	147	–	–	–

Table 12. Summary of concentrations of pendimethalin measured in air and rainwater in areas close to locations of use.

Date of sampling	Location	Concentration measureda	Comment	Reference
January 2000 and July 2001,	Roskilde and Oure in Denmark	0.019 to 0.386 μg/L	Rainwater samples	(Asman et al. 2005)
2004, and 2007	Area of high use of PND in France	Maximum concentration for all years and sites was 117 ng/m^3	Air samples (n = 1157) taken in 31 locations	(BASF 2009)
October 2005 to October 2006	Cloud forest in Costa Rica	<LOD (0.00025)–0.030 ng/m^3	Air samples from passive samplers	(Shunthirasingham et al. 2011)
October 17, 2005, and September 11, 2006	Belen, Costa Rica	0.001 to 0.03 ng/m^3	Air samples (24 h) from a high-volume pumped sampler	(Gouin et al. 2008)
2006 to 2008	Centre Region of France, three rural and two urban sites	0.0007 to 0.117 ng/m^3	Air samples from a low-volume sampler	(Coscollà et al. 2010)
2009 and 2010	German Bight	0.0005–0.014 ng/m^3 in 2009 and 0.003–0.026 ng/m^3 in 2010	Land-based passive samplers	(Mai et al. 2013)
2009 and 2010	German Bight and North Sea	0.0005–0.011 ng/m^3 in 2009	Ship-based high-volume samplers	(Mai et al. 2013)
2009 April	Baltic Sea	0.0001 to 0.01 ng/m^3	Ship-based high-volume samplers	(Mai 2012)

^aSee SI for more details on the sampling and analysis.

Table 13. Summary of concentrations of pendimethalin measured in surface waters in areas close to locations of use.

Date of sampling	Location	Concentration measureda	Comment	Reference
October 2005 to October 2006	Cloud forest in Costa Rica	<LOD (unstated)	Four water samples from mountain lakes and one from epiphytes in trees.	(Shunthirasingham et al. 2011)
2009	Jiulong River estuary in China	<LOD (0.06) to 0.98 μg/L	Water samples at 35 sites	(Zheng et al. 2016)
2008	Baltic Sea	0.014–0.133 μg/L	Twenty samples at 6 m depth	(Mai 2012)
2009 and 2010	German Bight	<LOQ–0.00021 μg/L in 2009 and 0.0001–0.0004 μg/L in 2010	Grab samples at 5 m depth	(Mai et al. 2013)
2009	North Sea	<LOQ–0.00005 μg/L	Grab samples at 5 m depth	(Mai et al. 2013)
June–July and September–October 2014	Glacial-fed streams of the Italian Alps	<LOD (0.01 μg/L)	Surface water grab samples	C. Ferrario, 2016, personal communication

^aSee SI for more details on the sampling and analysis.

Table 14. Concentrations of pendimethalin in measured in surface-waters of the United States.

Source	Number of samples	Concentration (μg/L)a			Frequency of detects (%)
		90th centile	99th centile	Maximum
Surface water	62,616	0.0	0.094	255	5.65
Groundwater	23,558	0.0	0.0	150	0.24

^aSee SI for more details on the analysis of data.

Table 15. Summary of concentrations of pendimethalin measured in remote regions.

Date of deposition	Location	Concentration measured^a	Comment	Reference
1953–2005	Holtedahlfonna (Svalbard)	<LOD (0.000001 μg/L)	Samples of ice cores	(Ruggirello et al. 2010).
1992–1998	Austfonna	0.019 μg/L	Samples of ice cores	(Hermanson et al. 2005)
1993–1994	Russian Arctic	0.31 to 0.92 μg/L	Samples of ice; contamination of samples might have occurred	(Boyd-Boland, Magdic, and Pawliszyn 1996)
1993–2008	Devon Island Ice Cap	<IDL (0.00014 ng/L)	Samples of ice cores	(Zhang et al. 2013)
2008 and 2009	Canadian Arctic	<IDL (0.6 µg/kg wet weight)	Terrestrial vegetation in Nunavut	(Morris et al. 2014)
2007 and 2010	Canadian Arctic	<MDL (117 pg/sample from 183 to >400 L	Marine water in three locations	(Morris et al. 2016)
2005–2008	Global program in all continents	The 90th centile concentration was 0.1 µg/sampler; no detections in remote, high-latitude locations	Air samples collected with passive samplers	(Shunthirasingham et al. 2010)
April–June 2009	Global program in all continents	Of four samples in remote locations, only one from Iceland was >LOD (0.27 ng/m^3)	Air samples collected with passive samplers	(Koblizkova, Lee, and Harner 2012)

^aSee SI for more details on the sampling and analysis.

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