Effect of low-density polyethylene on smoke emissions from burning of simulated debris piles

Figures & data

Table 1. General form of analysis of variance used to test effect of polyethylene plastic on emission factors produced by the burning of manzanita (Arctostaphylos sp.) wood

Source	df^a	Sum of squares	Mean square (MS)	F-statistic
Model	5	SSmodel	SSmodel / df	MSmodel /MS error
MCE	1	SSMCE	SSMCE / df	MSMCE /MS error
Block	2	SSβ	SSβ / df	MSβ /MS error
Polyethylene	2	SSτ	SSτ / df	MSτ/MS error
Error	3	SSerror	SSerror / df
Total corrected	8	SStotal

Notes: ^aDegrees of freedom. The interested reader is referred to any general statistics text (e.g., Mason et al. 1989) for further explanation of the composition of an analysis of variance table.

Figure 1. Examples of fuel beds of manzanita (Arctostaphylos sp.) wood and low-density polyethylene plastic: (a) 0.25 wt% PE and (b) 2.50 wt% PE.

Figure 2. Schematic illustration of experimental setup.

Table 2. Emission factors of selected components measured from burning mixtures of manzanita (Arctostaphylos sp.) wood and LDPE in g/kg CO₂; other references in g/kg fuel burned

Species	0% PE	0.25% PE	2.50% PE	RMSE (SD)	Other references
MCE^a	0.98	0.98	0.99		0.948 ± 0.007^b, 0.930 ± 0.029^c
Time to flaming	283	226	168	69
CO	13.5	12.6	9.9	4.6	64.3 ± 8.0^b
NOx as NO	1.53	1.83	1.96	0.15	2.67 ± 0.21^b
PM	1.97	1.85	2.01	0.59	3.61 ± 1.17^b, 23.5 ± 25.9^c, 2.7–11.4^d, 0.1–2.5^e, 5.1–9.5^f
EC	0.38	0.54	0.58	0.26	0.51 ± 0.18^b, 0.35 ± 0.31^c, 0.22–3.56^d, 1.4–3.2^f
OC	0.91	0.91	0.97	0.50	0.85 ± 0.71^b, 14.8 ± 17.3^c, 2.34–8.37^d, 43.7–56.0^f

Notes: ^aMCE, modified combustion efficiency.

^bHosseini et al. (2013).

^cPM_2.5: McMeeking et al. (2009).

^dFine et al. (2001), red maple, northern red oak, paper birch, eastern white pine, eastern hemlock, and balsam fir grown in northern United States.

^eHedberg et al. (2002), birch wood combustion in a woodstove.

^fSchauer et al. (2001), residential fireplace combustion of pine, oak, and eucalyptus.

Table 3. Estimated emission factors of alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, cycloalkenes, diolefins, and monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons produced by the burning of manzanita (Arctostaphylos sp.) wood-polyethylene plastic mixtures in mg/kg CO₂

Species	0 % PE	0.25 % PE	2.50 % PE	RMSE (SD)	Other references (mg/kg fuel)
Alkanes
Propane	14	45	9	19.9	107–167,^a 169^b
2M-Propane	2.4	1.2	2.1	1.4
2M-Propene	7.4	13.5	11.4	10.3
Butane	4.7	2.8	3.3	6.3	1.68–17.36,^a 25.9^b
2,2-DM-Propane	3.5	3.5	1.4	2.3
Pentane	5.9	5.8	2.5	3.9	8.69–13.12,^a 4.7^b
2,2-DM-Butane	3.3	8.7	1.8	5.8
CycPentane	3.1	0.1	0.6	2.8
2,3-DM-Butane	7.6	11.3	1.9	15
2M-Pentane	2.1	1.6	3.0	0.9
3M-Pentane	1.7	2.0	2.6	1.1
Hexane	2.5	3.2	5.5	7.2	6.01–12.30^a
2,2-DM-Pentane	0.1	0.3	0.3	0.3
2M-Butane	3.5	5.9	11.7	12.8
2,4-DM-Pentane	0.9	0.7	0.3	0.9
2,2,3-TM-Butane	0.3	0.4	0.6	0.8
3,3-DM-Pentane	1.5	0.7	0.2	1.0
CycHexane	0.3	0.3	1.0	1.0
2M-Hexane	0.6	1.9	0.4	1.7
2,3-DM-Pentane	0.3	0.2	0.6	0.4
3M-Hexane	0.3	0.4	0.6	0.7
c-1,3-DM-CycPentane	0.1	0.1	0.8	0.5
3E-Pentane	0.6	0.3	0.3	0.6
2,2,4-TM-Pentane	0.4	0.4	0.5	0.6
Heptane	0.3	0.3	0.7	0.8	3.71–5.36,^a 28.9^b
2,2-DM-Hexane	0.2	0.1	0.1	0.1
2,5-DM-Hexane	0.2	0.1	0.1	0.2
2,4-DM-Hexane	0.1	0.0	0.6	0.6
3,3-DM-Hexane	0.0	0.1	0.0	0.0
2,3,4-TM-Pentane	0.0	12.3	0.1	13.6
2,3,3-TM-Pentane	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
2,3-DM-Hexane	1.6	0.7	1.2	1.6
2M-Heptane	0.8	0.3	0.4	0.8
4M-Heptane	0.1	0.3	0.2	0.2
3M-Heptane	0.1	0.1	0.5	0.5
2,2,5-TM-Hexane	0.3	0.2	0.5	0.1
Octane	0.1	0.3	0.8	0.5	2.54–14.94,^a 1.7^b
2,3,5-TM-Hexane	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2
2,4-DM-Heptane	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
E-CycHexane	0.0	0.1	0.1	0.3
3,5-DM-Heptane	0.0	0.0	0.1	0.1
2,3-DM-Heptane	0.0	0.0	0.1	0.1
2M-Octane	0.4	1.1	1.1	1.2
3M-Octane	0.0	0.1	0.2	0.0
Nonane	0.2	0.2	0.4	0.3	1.09–5.13,^a 3.9^b
2,2-DM-Octane	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.1
2,4-DM-Octane	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
Decane	0.5	0.4	0.2	0.4	0.92–2.10^a
Undecane	0.4	0.3	0.2	0.3	1.29–2.92^a
Dodecane	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.93–2.54^a
Tridecane	0.3	0.3	0.2	0.4	0.40–1.60^a
Sum	74	128	70	51
	Cycloalkanes
M-CycPentane	0.4	0.2	0.3	0.1
t-1,2-DM-CycPentane	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2
M-CycHexane	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2
1c,2t,3-TM-CycPentane	0.0	0.1	0.0	0.0
c-1,3-DM-CycHexane	0.1	0.7	0.3	0.7
t-1,4-DM-CycHexane	0.0	0.1	0.2	0.1
t-1,3-DM-CycHexane	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.0
c-1,2-DM-CycHexane	0.1	0.0	0.1	0.1
Sum	0.9	1.5	1.3	1.2
	Alkenes
1-Butene	6.8	11.2	13.4	11.4	84–148,^a 90.7^b
t-2-Butene	2.0	4.2	2.1	2.1	66.5^b
c-2-Butene	0.2	0.2	0.1	0.1	35.4^b
3M-1-Butene	5.5	1.9	1.4	4.0	6.9^b
1-Pentene	10.4	0.7	2.0	6.9	10–19,^a 8.6^b
2M-1-Butene	6.0	3.4	0.9	3.7	13.8^b
t-2-Pentene	9.4	5.9	18.1	9.7	16.0^b
3,3-DM-1-Butene	1.5	8.0	16.8	11.6
c-2-Pentene	1.4	3.7	3.8	4.2	10.4^b
2M-2-Butene	12.8	2.4	1.6	13.6	13.4^b
4M-1-Pentene	5.3	2.8	1.6	5.2
3M-1-Pentene	2.0	3.7	0.2	2.2
4M-c-2-Pentene	5.7	14.2	0.4	13.8
4M-t-2-Pentene	9.3	4.9	4.7	5.7
2M-1-Pentene	1.4	2.4	0.7	1.9
1-Hexene	3.1	5.5	3.7	7.2	11–20^a
t-3-Hexene	1.1	2.9	0.5	1.7
c-3-Hexene	0.8	1.6	0.1	0.9
t-2-Hexene	0.3	0.6	1.0	1.2	8.6^b
3M-t-2-Pentene	0.1	1.0	0.8	1.4
2M-2-Pentene	0.1	0.8	0.5	0.7	6.9^b
c-2-Hexene	0.6	0.5	0.2	0.4
3M-c-2-Pentene	0.2	0.4	0.1	0.3
3,4-DM-1-Pentene	0.3	0.1	0.1	0.2
3M-1-Hexene	0.7	1.3	0.6	0.9
1-Heptene	0.9	0.6	2.5	1.3	3.71–5.36^a
t-3-Heptene	0.2	0.7	0.1	0.6
2M-2-Hexene	0.2	0.2	1.2	0.8
3M-t-3-Hexene	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.3
t-2-Heptene	0.1	0.1	0.4	0.2
3E-c-2-Pentene	0.2	0.3	0.4	0.3
2,4,4-TM-1-Pentene	0.2	0.0	0.3	0.2
2,3-DM-2-Pentene	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2
c-2-Heptene	0.1	0.1	0.4	0.4
2,4,4-TM-2-Pentene	0.0	0.1	0.3	0.3
1-Octene	0.1	0.3	0.7	0.5	0.43–1.49^a
t-4-Octene	0.3	0.2	0.5	0.5
t-2-Octene	0.1	0.1	0.6	0.6
c-2-Octene	0.3	0.1	0.2	0.3
1-Nonene	0.9	0.9	2.1	1.7	0–0.49^a
Sum	91	88	85	55
	Cycloalkenes
CycPentene	0.3	0.6	0.3	0.3
3M-CycPentene	0.2	0.2	0.5	0.3
1M-CycPentene	0.5	0.2	0.5	0.6
CycHexene	0.4	0.3	1.0	0.9
Sum	1.4	1.3	2.3	2.2
	Diolefins
1,3-Butadiene	2.6	15.7	3.4	8.1	62–196,^a 117^b
2M-1,3-Butadiene	0.7	3.4	5.4	4.9
CycPentadiene	1.4	0.1	1.0	1.9	26–127^a
Sum	4.7	19.1	9.8	13.4
	Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Toluene	25	26	20	19	130–320^a
m&p-xylene	6.6	4.1	5.6	7.8	40–72^a
Styrene	9.2	8.3	7.6	7.9	35–117^a
o-Xylene	2.2	1.5	1.4	1.6	16–27^a
Benzene	105	102	83	97	225–1190^a
Indan	0.0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.12–0.49^a
Sum	148	142	118	103
Ethyl Benzene	5.2	4.4	4.2	4.0
i-PropBenzene	0.3	0.2	0.1	0.2
n-PropBenzene	0.7	0.4	0.4	0.8
1M-3E-Benzene	0.4	0.4	0.1	0.3
1M-4E-Benzene	0.1	0.2	0.5	0.2
1,3,5-TM-Benzene	0.4	0.5	0.3	0.5
1M-2E-Benzene	0.7	0.1	0.6	0.9
1,2,4-TM-Benzene	0.3	3.1	2.6	2.2
i-ButylBenzene	0.1	0.2	0.0	0.1
s-ButylBenzene	0.4	0.1	0.0	0.4
1M-3-i-PropBenzene	0.0	0.3	0.1	0.2
1,2,3-TM-Benzene	0.4	0.2	0.4	0.6
1M-4-i-PropBenzene	0.2	0.1	0.1	0.1
1M-2-i-PropBenzene	0.3	0.1	0.1	0.2
1,3-DE-Benzene	0.1	0.4	0.1	0.4
1,4-DE-Benzene	0.1	0.1	1.7	1.8
1M-3-n-PropBenzene	0.2	0.7	0.3	0.4
1M-4-n-PropBenzene	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2
1,2-DE-Benzene	0.1	0.3	0.1	0.3
1M-2-n-PropBenzene	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
1,4-DM-2-E-Benzene	0.2	0.4	0.1	0.3
1,3-DM-4-E-Benzene	0.1	0.4	0.0	0.3
1,2-DM-4-E-Benzene	0.2	0.3	0.1	0.3
1,3-DM-2-E-Benzene	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.5
1,2-DM-3-E-Benzene	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2
1,2,4,5-TetM-Benzene	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
2-M-ButylBenzene	0.0	0.3	0.0	0.4
1,2,3,5-TetM-Benzene	0.1	0.1	0.0	0.1
tert-1-But-2-M-Benzene	0.0	0.1	0.1	0.1
1,2,3,4-TetM-Benzene	0.1	0.1	0.0	0.1
n-Pent-Benzene	0.3	0.2	0.1	0.2
tert-1-But-3,5-DM-Benzene	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
Sum	11.6	14.1	12.9	13.0

Notes: ^aMcDonald et al. (2000) (fireplace softwood, hardwood, and woodstove), cottonwood, birch, aspen, and oak.

^bSchauer et al. (2001), residential fireplace combustion of pine, oak, and eucalyptus.

Table 4. Gaseous emission factors for polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from the burning of manzanita (Arctostaphylos sp.) wood/LDPE mixtures (mg per kg CO₂)

Species	0% PE	0.25% PE	2.50% PE	RMSE (SD)	Other references (mg/kg fuel burned)
Gas-phase polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
Naphthalene	71	38	53	48	21–54^a, 18.34 ± 14.05^d, 38.1 ± 31.9^f
Acenaphthylene	43	12	8	28	5–9^a, 1.01–2.66^e, 14.2 ± 12.2^f
Acenaphthene	0.8	0.5	0.3	0.4	0.41–0.89^a, 0.18–2.51^e, 0.2 ± 0.1^f
Fluorene	3.4	2.3	1.3	1.3	2.15–3.50^a, 0.05–0.92^e, 0.2 ± 0.1^f
Phenanthrene	10.5	5.7	3.4	5.7	1.99–3.94^e, 5.8 ± 1.8^f
Anthracene	1.2	0.9	0.4	0.3	0.32–1.27^e, 6.3 ± 1.4^f
Fluoranthene	1.0	1.1	1.0	0.5	0.52–2.86^e, 1.2 ± 0.2^f
Pyrene	1.0	2.2	1.1	1.4	0.45–1.47^e, 1.1 ± 0.5^f
Benz[a]anthracene	0.04	0.05	0.02	0.02	0.21–0.40^e, 0.04 ± 0.06^f
Chrysene	0.03	0.03	0.02	0.01	0.75–1.14^c, 0.21–0.34^e, 0.04 ± 0.05
Benzo[b]fluoranthene	0.06	0.06	0.02	0.05	0.40–0.79^c, 0–0.05^e, 0.09 ± 0.12^f
Benzo[k]fluoranthene	0.01	0.02	0.02	0.01	0.29–0.67^c,0–0.13^e, 0.02 ± 0.01^f
Benzo[a]pyrene	0.03	0.08	0.04	0.04	0.25–0.71^c, 0.03 ± 0.03^f
Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene	0.01	0.05	0.02	0.02	n.d.^e, 0.03 ± 0.04^f
Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene	0.01	0.06	0.02	0.02	n.d.^e, 0.05 ± 0.07^f
Benzo[ghi]perylene	0.04	0.15	0.03	0.09	0–0.002^e, n.d.^f
Sum	132	63	68	78
	Particle-phase polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
Fluorene	0.06	0.12	0.11	0.02	27.4^b, 73–269^d, 0.04 ± 0.06^f
Phenanthrene	0.12	0.25	0.20	0.05	10–17^a, 99.1^b, 0.21 ± 0.20^f
Anthracene	0.01	0.03	0.02	0.01	19.3b, 1–50^d, 0.04 ± 0.03^f
Fluoranthene	0.10	0.28	0.13	0.05	1.75–3.99^a, 19.3^b, 286–1083^d, 0.22 ± 0.14^f
Pyrene	0.12	0.27	0.16	0.03	1.49–3.39a, 25.5b, 1.87–2.70c, 222–1080^d, 0.74 ± 0.84^f
Benz[a]anthracene	0.11	0.36	0.13	0.13	0.31–0.56^a, 3.5^b, 127–249^d, 0.23 ± 0.08^f
Chrysene	0.10	0.28	0.14	0.10	0.28–0.61^a, 4.1^b, 107–253^d,0.18 ± 0.16^f
Benzo[b]fluoranthene	0.26	0.40	0.21	0.29	0.51–1.05^a*, 6.1^b, 36–157^d, 0.67 ± 1.00^f
Benzo[k]fluoranthene	0.08	0.11	0.08	0.07	0.51–1.05^a*, b.d.^b, 3.23 ± 2.91^f
Benzo[a]pyrene	0.18	0.57	0.50	0.18	0.15–0.34^a, 0.09 ± 0.10^f
Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene	0.21	0.67	0.45	0.16	0.07–0.19^a, 3.6^b, 39–164^d, 0.06 ± 0.03^f
Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene	0.04	0.22	0.30	0.17	b.d.^b, 3–11^d, 0.02 ± 0.01^f
Benzo[ghi]perylene	0.28	0.80	0.63	0.30	0.07–0.22^a, 2.6^b, 0.44^c, 25–70^d, 0.11 ± 0.07^f
Sum	1.66	4.36	3.07	1.01

Notes: b.d. and n.d. indicate compound was below detection limit or not detected in that study, respectively.

^aMcDonald et al. (2000) (fireplace softwood, hardwood, and woodstove), cottonwood, birch, aspen, and oak.

^bHedberg et al. (2002), birch wood combustion in a woodstove.

^cSchauer et al. (2001), residential fireplace combustion of pine, oak, and eucalyptus.

^d Fine et al. (2001), red maple, northern red oak, paper birch, eastern white pine, eastern hemlock, and balsam fir grown in northern United States.

^eJenkins et al. (1996); included here of this study are wood from almond, walnut, and fir trees.

^fHosseini et al. (2013).

Table 5. Emission factors for aldehydes and ketones from the burning of manzanita (Arctostaphylos sp.) wood–LDPE mixtures derived from 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH) coated silica cartridges; units are in mg/kg CO₂

Species	0% PE	0.25% PE	2.50t% PE	RMSE (SD)	Other references (mg/kg fuel burned)
Acetone	51	40	46	19	366^b, 749^c, 73.9 ± 16.2^d
Formaldehyde	206	330	147	227	113–245^a, 422^b, 1165^c, 174.8 ± 52.5^d
Acetaldehyde	127	208	87	134	301–425^a, 86^b, 1704^c, 92.7 ± 21.9^d
Propionaldehyde	20	31	14	19	80–150^a,7.6, 255^c, 7.5 ± 15.1^d
Crotonaldehyde (butenal)	13	20	10	13	276^c
Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)	39	60	27	21	8.3^b, 215^c
Methacrolein	23	27	15	37	1.8^a, 23^c
Butyraldehyde	5.4	7.9	5.9	6.0	19–36^b, 96^c, 52.1 ± 18.2^d
Benzaldehyde	8.4	12.5	7.8	7.4	12^b
Valeraldehyde	4.0	6.4	2.8	2.6	7–18^a,1.1^b, 85.9 ± 37.4^d
Tolualdehyde	4.5	6.6	2.4	3.5	0.9^b
Hexanal	120	183	91	121	34.6^b, 89.0 ± 37.5^d
Acrolein	33	62	20	38	46–91^a, 63^c
Sum	618	940	452	487

Notes: ^aMcDonald et al. (2000) (fireplace softwood, hardwood, and woodstove), cottonwood, birch, aspen, and oak.

^bHedberg et al. (2002), birch wood combustion in a woodstove.

^cSchauer et al. (2001), residential fireplace combustion of pine, oak, and eucalyptus.

^dHosseini et al. (2013).

Figure 3. EF_PM is plotted versus reconstructed PM mass based on the emission factors of elemental carbon (EC) and organic carbon (OC); solid line shows the regression line with slope 1 and correlation coefficient of 0.87.

Figure 4. Contour graphs shown for two different PE contents: (a) 0.0 wt% PE and (b) 2.5 wt% PE. The data were captured using a model 3090 engine exhaust particle sizer (EEPS).

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