Airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a medium-sized city affected by preharvest sugarcane burning and inhalation risk for human health

Figures & data

Table 1. Summary of PAH measurement studies performed in Brazil

Municipality (State)	Location	Date	Media/Particle Size	PAH	Concentration (ng m^−3)	Reference
Salvador (BA)	Urban—bus station	April and August 1991	QFF/TSP	Chrysene	26.6	Pereira et al. (2002)
	Urban tunnel			Pyrene	79.4 ± 11.5
				Fluoranthene	39.0 ± 5.2
Rio de Janeiro (RJ)	Urban	Summer 1999	GFF/TSP	16 PAHs	23.4	Pereira Netto et al. (2001, 2002)
Niterói (RJ)		Summer 1999			6.78
		Winter 1999			6.94
Campos de	Urban	December 1996 to November 1997	QFF/TSP	Total PAHs	9.31–342	Azevedo et al. (2002)
Goytacazes	Suburban				1.03–312
(RJ) ^a	Rural				0.12–165
São Paulo (SP)	Urban	October 1995	Two PUF	15 PAHs	38–136	CETESB (2002)
Araraquara (SP) ^a		October 1995	samplers in		9–110
	Rural	Apr 1996, July 1996	series; TSP and gas phase		413–1794
Cubatão (SP)	Urban and Industrial	November and December 1995			33–167
São Paulo (SP)	Urban	Winter 2000	QFF/TSP	Total PAHs	3.10	Vasconcellos et al.
	Urban forest				1.92	(2003)
	Urban	February to May 2000	PTFE-GFF/PM10	17 PAHs	82.3	De Martinis et al. (2002)
Araraquara (SP) ^a urban	Harvest season	August 2002, September 2003	PTFE-GFF/PM10	13 PAHs	11.6	Andrade et al. (2010)
	Nonharvest season	Mar 2003, January 2004			2.5
	Indoor, harvest season	August 2007	PFTE/PM10	13 PAHs	22.9	Cristale et al. (2012)
	Indoor, nonharvest season	January 2008			2.35

Notes: ^aSugarcane burning. QFF = quartz fiber filter; TSP = total suspended particulate; GFF = glass fiber filter; PUF = polyurethane foam; PTFE-GFF = polytetrafluoroethlytene filter–coated GFF; PM₁₀ = particulate matter less than 10 μm in diameter; PTFE = polytetrafluoroethlytene filter.

Figure 1. Municipality of Araraquara: Geographical position, and location of point sources and sampling sites.

Figure 2. Average PM₁₀ concentrations (central station), number of fire spots and rainfall in Araraquara, by month, in 2009.

Table 2. Exposure parameters adopted in the risk analysis

Parameter	Unit	Infants	Children	Adults	Distribution Function
Age	yr	0–5	6–19	20–70
Body weight (BW) ^a	kg	14.5 ± 4.9	43.8 ± 12.3	62.8 ± 2.7	Log-normal
Exposure duration	yr	5	14	51
Averaging time	day	25550	25550	25550
Inhalation rate (IRar) ^b	m^3/day	8.3 ± 2.2	15.6 ± 4.0	16.6 ± 4.0	Log-normal
Exposure frequency	day/yr	335; 350; 365	335; 350; 365	335; 350; 365	Triangular
Conversion factor		1 × 10^−6	1 × 10^−6	1 × 10^−6
PAH concentration	μg m^−3	min; mean; max	min; mean; max	min; mean; max	Triangular

Notes: ^aIBGE (2010);

^bEPA (2010a).

Table 3. Results of the average, minimum, and maximum PAH concentrations in the municipality of Araraquara (ng m⁻³)

	Rural A			Rural B			Central
PAH	Average	Min.	Max.	Average	Min.	Max.	Average	Min.	Max.
Naphthalene	0.49	0.02	1.21	0.90	0.02	1.69	1.14	0.02	1.8
Acenaphthylene	0.36	0.02	0.73	0.45	0.02	1.23	0.73	0.26	0.96
Acenaphthene	0.03	0.02	0.03	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.10	0.02	0.27
Fluorene	0.31	0.02	0.49	0.14	0.02	0.27	0.60	0.26	0.87
Phenanthrene	5.8	2.2	8.6	4.4	2.0	9.0	13.0	2.9	18.4
Anthracene	0.28	0.10	0.46	0.20	0.02	0.49	1.16	0.21	1.6
Fluoranthene	4.9	3.6	7.3	3.1	1.2	6.4	7.5	1.6	9.3
Pyrene	4.7	3.3	7.6	2.6	0.81	5.7	6.7	1.4	9.3
Benzo[a]anthracene	0.35	0.16	0.49	0.13	0.05	0.27	0.64	0.08	1.1
Chrysene	0.64	0.42	0.79	0.36	0.19	0.63	1.06	0.24	1.6
Benzo[b]fluoranthene	0.79	0.37	1.29	0.32	0.14	0.66	1.07	0.26	1.5
Benzo[k]fluoranthene	0.34	0.02	0.65	0.41	0.08	0.72	0.42	0.08	0.69
Benzo[a]pyrene	0.42	0.13	0.44	0.26	0.14	0.36	0.53	0.18	0.64
Indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene	0.33	0.08	0.51	0.16	0.05	0.22	0.62	0.05	1.1
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.04	0.02	0.05
Benzo[g,h,i]perylene	0.83	0.37	1.56	0.54	0.08	0.77	1.06	0.13	1.9
Total	20.7			14.1			36.1
Standard deviation	11.5			13.0			22.7

Figure 3. Average concentrations of individual PAH by sampling site (ng m⁻³).

Table 4. Results of the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILTR) for carcinogenic PAH inhalation

			Risk for Infants		Risk for Children		Risk for Adults		ILTR
HPA	Classification (EPA, IARC)	Inhalation Slope Factor^a (mg kg^−1 day^−1)^−1	Mean	(95% UPL*)	Mean	(95% UPL)	Mean	(95% UPL)	Mean	(95% UPL)
Benzo[a]anthracene	2B, B2	0.39	1.02E-8	(2.59E-8)	1.84E-8	(4.18E-8)	4.63E-8	(8.80E-8)	7.56E-8	(1.35E-7)
Benzo[a]pyrene	1, B2	3.9	9.02E-8	(1.98E-7)	1.59E-7	(3.11E-7)	3.85E-7	(6.67E-7)	6.25E-7	(9.81E-7)
Benzo[b]fluoranthene	2B, B2	0.39	1.83E-8	(4.02E-8)	3.08E-8	(6.50E-8)	7.74E-8	(1.39E-7)	1.16E-7	(2.08E-7)
Benzo[k]fluoranthene	2B, B2	0.39	7.17E-9	(1.68E-8)	1.20E-8	(2.68E-8)	3.03E-8	(5.75E-8)	4.94E-8	(8.77E-8)
Chrysene	2B, B2	0.039	1.80E-9	(4.15E-9)	3.04E-9	(6.55E-9)	7.62E-9	(1.39E-8)	1.25E-8	(2.12E-8)
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene	2A, B2	4.1	7.72E-9	(1.76E-8)	1.30E-8	(2.81E-8)	3.27E-8	(6.00E-8)	5.30E-8	(9.05E-8)
Indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene	2B, C	0.39	1.06E-8	(2.56E-8)	1.78E-8	(4.05E-8)	4.47E-8	(8.72E-8)	7.31E-8	(1.34E-7)
Naphthalene	2B, C	0.12	7.42E-9	(1.63E-8)	1.25E-8	(2.56E-8)	3.15E-8	(5.48E-8)	5.14E-8	(8.05E-8)
Total			1.54E-7	(3.30E-7)	2.60E-7	(5.16E-7)	6.53E-7	(1.96E-6)	1.07E-6	(1.59E-6)

Notes: ^aOEHHA (2010); ^*Upper Probability Limit for 95% of confidence.

Figure 4. Participation of carcinogenic PAHs in their total mass concentration and in the ILTR.

Table 5. PAH ratios from the Araraquara Central site data and selected ratios from literature

Condition	BaP/B(ghi)P	PHE/AN	BaA/CRY	FLT/PYR	FL/(FL+PYR)	FLA/(FLA+PYR)	BaA/(BaA+CHR)	IcDP/(IcDP+BghiP)
Results in Araraquara Central site
Collection campaign 1	0.88	11.70	0.63	1.03	0.09	0.52	0.40	0.42
Collection campaign 2	0.38	11.04	0.59	1.48	0.08	0.60	0.37	0.29
Collection campaign 3	0.32	9.72	0.50	1.0	0.05	0.50	0.33	0.4
Collection campaign 4	1.4	14.00	0.33	1.1	0.16	0.53	0.25	0.3
Average	0.74	11.62	0.51	1.17	0.09	0.54	0.34	0.34
Ratio from literature
Diesel combustion	0.46–0.81^a^,^b	7.6–8.8^a^,^b	0.17–0.36^a^,^b		>0.5^h
Gasoline exhaust	0.3–0.4^a	3.4–8^a	0.28–1.2^a^,c		<0.5^h			0.2–0.5^f
Vehicles	0.3–0.78^d^,^e >0.6^k	(2.7)^e 3–12^f^,^g	0.63^e	0.9–1.1^f^,^g			>0.35^j
Firewood fire^c		3	0.93
Oil burning^d	>2
Pyrogenic source^f^,^g		<10*		<1*
Coal and wood combustion^f^,^g		>10*		>1*
Fossil fuel combustion^i						0.4–0.5
Grass, wood and coal combustion						>0.5^i		0.2–0.5^f
Coal combustion^j							0.2–0.35

Notes: *Both ratios must be considered concomitantly. Ratios from literature highlighted in bold were those in agreement with result ratios.

^aRogge et al. (1993);

^bWesterholm et al. (1991); ^cGschwend and Hites (1981);

^dDaisey et al. (1979);

^eSmith and Harrison (1996);

^fYunker er al. (2002);

^gWang (2007);

^hRavindra et al. (2008);

ⁱDe La Torre-Roche et al. (2009);

^jAkyüz and Çabuk (2010);

^kKatsoyiannis et al. (2007).

Pereira, P.A., J.B. Andrade, and A.H. Miguel. 2002. Measurements of semivolatile and particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a bus station and an urban tunnel in Salvador, Brazil. J. Environ. Monit. 4:558–561. doi:10.1039/b201990f

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Pereira Netto, A.D., R.P. Barreto, J.C. Moreira, and G. Arbilla. 2001. Preliminary comparison of PAH in total suspended particulate samples taken at Niteroi and Rio de Janeiro cities, Brazil. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 6:36–43. doi:10.1007/s001280000202

 Google Scholar

Azevedo, D.A., C.Y.M. Santos, and F.R. Aquino Neto. 2002. Identification and seasonal variation of organic matter in aerosols from Campos dos Goytacazes area, Brazil. Atmos. Environ. 36:2383–2395.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

CETESB (Sao Paulo State Environmental Agency. 2002. Avaliação dos compostos orgânicos provenientes da queima de palha da cana-de-açúcar na região de Araraquara/SP e comparação com medidas efetuadas em São Paulo e Cubatão—Relatório Final [Assessment of organic compounds from sugarcane burning in the region of Araraquara/SP and comparison with measurements performed in Cubatao and Sao Paulo—Final Report]. http://www.cetesb.sp.gov.br/ar/qualidade-do-ar/31-publicacoes-e-relatorios (accessed May 8, 2013).

 Google Scholar

De Martinis, B., R.A.B. Okamoto, N.Y. Kado, L. Gundel, and L.R.F. de Carvalho. 2002. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a bioassay-fractioned extract of PM10 collected in São Paulo, Brazil. Atmos. Environ. 36:307–314. doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00334-X

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Andrade, S.J., J. Cristale, F.S. Silva, G.J. Zocolo, and M.R.R. Marchi. 2010. Contribution of sugar-cane harvesting season to atmospheric contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Araraquara city, southeast Brazil. Atmos. Environ. 44:2913–2919. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.04.026

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Cristale, J., F.S. Silva, G.J. Zocolo, and M.R.R. Marchi. 2012. Influence of sugarcane burning on indoor/outdoor PAH air pollution in Brazil. Environ. Pollut. 169:210–216. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2012.03.045

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics). 2010. Pesquisa de Orçamento Familiar 2008–2009: Antopometria e Estado Nutricional de Crianças, Adolescentes e Adultos no Brasil [Household Budget Survey 2008–2009: Anthropometry and Nutritional Status of Children, Adolescents and Adults in Brazil]. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: IBGE.

 Google Scholar

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2010a. Exposure Factors Handbook 2009 Update. EPA/600/R-09/052A. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.

 Google Scholar

Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). 2010. OEHHA Toxicity Criteria Database. http://www.oehha.ca.gov/tcdb/index.asp (accessed May 8, 2013).

 Google Scholar

Rogge, W.F., L.M. Hildemann, M.A. Mazurek, G.R. Cass, and B.R. Simoneit. 1993. Sources of fine organic aerosol. 2. Noncatalyst and catalyst-equipped automobiles and heavy duty diesel trucks. Environ. Sci. Technol. 27:636–651. doi:10.1021/es00041a007

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Westerholm, R.N., J. Almin, and H. Lit. 1991. Chemical and biological characterization of particulate-, semivolatile-, and gas-phase-associated compounds in diluted heavy-duty diesel exhausts: A comparison of three different semivolatile-phase samplers. Environ. Sci. Technol. 25:332–338. doi:10.1021/es00014a018

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Gschwend, P.M., and R.A. Hites. 1981. Fluxes of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to marine and lacustrine sediments in the northeastern United States. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 45:2359–2367. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(81)90089-2

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Smith, D.J.T., and R.M. Harrison. 1996. Concentrations, trends and vehicle source profile of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the U.K. atmosphere. Atmos. Environ. 30:2513–2525. doi:10.1016/1352-2310(95)00474-2

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Yunker, M.B., R.W. Macdonald, R. Vingarzan, R.H. Mitchell, D. Goyette, and S. Sylvestre. 2002. PAHs in the Fraser River basin: A critical appraisal of PAH ratios as indicators of PAH source and composition. Org. Geochem. 33:489–515. doi:10.1016/S0146-6380(02)00002-5

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Wang, Z., J. Chen, X. Qiao, P. Yang, F. Tian, and L. Huang. 2007. Distribution and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from urban to rural soils: A case study in Dalian, China. Chemosphere 68:965–971. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.01.017

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ravindra, K., E. Wauters, and R. Van Grieken. 2008. Variation in particulate PAHs levels and their relation with the transboundary movement of the air masses. Sci. Total Environ. 396:100–110. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.02.018

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

De La Torre-Roche, R.J., W.-Y. Lee, and S.I. Campos-Díaz. 2009. Soil-borne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in El Paso, Texas: Analysis of a potential problem in the United States/Mexico border region. J. Hazard. Mater. 163:946–958. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.07.089

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Akyüz, M., and H. Çabuk. 2010. Gaseparticle partitioning and seasonal variation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmosphere of Zonguldak, Turkey. Sci. Total Environ. 408:5550–5558. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.07.063

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Katsoyiannis, A., E. Terzi, and Q.-Y. Cai. 2007. On the use of PAH molecular diagnostic ratios in sewage sludge for the understanding of the PAH sources. Is this use appropriate? Chemosphere 69:1337–1339. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.05.084

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar