Personal exposure to fine particulate matter concentrations in central business district of a tropical coastal city

Figures & data

Figure 1. Map of the study area showing the monitoring locations (CBD and UB), monitoring route, and the weather station.

Figure 2. Land use pattern at CBD.

Figure 3. Description of the monitoring route (T, R, C) characteristics. Also indicated are the location of the flyover bridge, school, as well as the traffic intersections.

Figure 4. Monthly average fixed-site PM₁₀ concentrations at CBD during 2012–2015.

Figure 5. Personal exposure concentrations of PM_2.5 during weekends and weekdays at CBD.

Table 1. Statistical summary of the weekday and weekend PM_2.5 concentrations measured at CBD.

Parameter	Weekdays			Weekends
	Morning	Afternoon	Evening	Morning	Afternoon	Evening
Arithmetic mean	79	50.78	48.67	47.36	57.55	54.03
Median	59.5	29.6	36.6	38.1	34.9	40.04
5th percentile	24	12.8	16.1	17.24	15.44	23.3
95th percentile	152.72	137.3	127.7	103.09	143.56	137.09
Skewness	20.98	8.87	2.78	4.48	6.71	5.22
Arithmetic standard deviation	190.14	70.06	39.36	35.64	88.21	46.82

Table 2. PM exposure studies for different exposure modes in an urban environment compared with the present study.

Study area and period	Area type	Mode of exposure	Pollutants measured	Mean / PM Number concentration	Instruments used	Reference
Antwerp, Belgium 2012	Urban Roadways	Bicycle (Aeroflex)	UFP	32310 pt/cm^3	TSI P-TRAK^a	Peters et al., 2014
Newark, US 2012	Urban Roadway	Walking	UFP PM2.5	33,330 ± 23,451 pt/cm^3 8.87 ± 7.65 µg/m^3	CPC (3007 TSI) SidePak^a	Yu et al., 2016
Braddock, US 2010 -2011	Urban City	Cab	PM2.5 PM10	15.5 – 46.2 µg/m^3 24.8 – 50.5 µg/m^3	Hazdust monitor^b (EPAM 5000)	Tunno et al., 2012
Helsinki, Finland 2010	Urban High traffic flow area	Van	UFP PM2.5	(10– 16)×10^3 cm^−3 21 – 39 µg/m^3	Electrical low pressure impactor^c TSI DustTrak^a	Lähde et al., 2014
Mol, Belgium 2010	Urban Near road	Bicycle (Aeroflex)	UFP PM2.5	(14 – 18)×10^3 26 – 27 µg/m^3	TSI P-TRAK^a Grimm Dust Monitor 1.108^d	Poppel et al., 2013
Antwerp, Belgium 2009	Urban Cycling paths	Bicycle (Aeroflex)	UFP PM10	21722 pt/cm^3 97 µg/m^3	TSI P-TRAK^a DustTrak DRX 8534^a	Peters et al., 2013
Brussels, Belgium 2009	Urban	Bicycle	PNC (dose) PM10(dose) PM2.5(dose)	4,631,562 dose/meter 11.5 µg/km 3.4 µg/km	TSI P-TRAK^a TSI DustTrak^a	Int Panis et al., 2010
Mol 2009	Urban Cycling paths	Bicycle (Aeroflex)	UFP PM10	16040 pt/cm^3 45 µg/m^3	TSI P-TRAK^a Grimm Dust Monitor 1.108^d	Peters et al., 2013
Brooklyn, US 2007	Urban Roadway	Walking	UFP PM2.5	44,000 ± 24,800 pt/cm^3 36 ± 30 µg/m^3	CPC (3781 TSI)^a TSI DustTrak 8520^a	Zwack et al., 2011a
Mol, Belgium 2007	Urban	Bicycle (Aeroflex)	UFP PM1 PM2.5 PM10	21,226 ± 13,795 pt/cm^3 37.4 ± 28.3 µg/m^3 38.8 ± 26.4 µg/m^3 62.4 ± 33.5 µg/m^3	TSI P-TRAK^a Grimm Dust Monitor 1.108^d	Berghmans et al., 2009
Vancouver, Canada 2007	Bicycle routes	Bicycle	UFP PM3 PM10	33920 ± 35982 pt/cm^3 21.04 ± 7.9 µg/m^3 50.66 ± 15.3 µg/m^3	TSI P-TRAK^a Grimm Dust Monitor 1.108^d	Thai et al., 2008
New York, US 2006	Urban Street Canyons	Walking	UFP PM2.5	28,400 ± 16,300 pt/cm^3 51.4 ± 39.3 µg/m^3	TSI P TRAK^a TSI DustTrak 8520^a	Zwack et al., 2011b
London, England 2004	Urban Near road	Walking	UFP PM2.5	80009 pt/cm^3 37.7 µg/m^3	TSI P-TRAK^a High flow personal sampler(HFPS)	Kaur et al., 2005
Los Angeles, US 2003	Urban Roadway	SUV	UFP (median) PM2.5 (median)	190000 pt/cm^3 54 µg/m^3	CPC (3007 TSI)^a CPC 3002 A TSI^a	Westerdahl et al., 2005
Amsterdam, Netherlands 2000	Urban Motorway	Van	UFP PM1	160000 cm^−3 >9 µg/m^3	CPC 3022 TSI^a LAS-v^e	Weijers et al., 2004
Xi’an, China	Urban roadway	Walk	PM10 PM2.5 PM1	127.23±22.26 µg/m^3 71.59±5.11 µg/m^3 57.01±3.11 µg/m^3	Grimm dust monitor1.109^d	Qiu et al.,2017
Bogota, Colombia	Bike-paths	Bike	PM2.5	19.0 – 156.2 µg/m^3	DustTrack 8533^a	Franco et al.,2016
Londrina, Brazil	Urban roadway	Bicycle	PM2.5	8.61 µg/m^3	DustTrack 8520^a	Targino et al.,2016
Present study	Central Business District	Walking	PM10 PM2.5 PM1	137±31.8 µg/m^3 56.4±11.7 µg/m^3 33.3±7.4 µg/m^3	Grimm dust monitor 1.109^d

Notes. ^aTSI Inc.,USA

^bEnvironmental devices corporation, Plaistow, UK

^cDekati Ltd, Finland

^dGrimm Aerosol Technik, Germany

^ePMS Inc, Colorado, USA

Figure 6. Spatial map of aggregated median PM_2.5 concentrations during weekends. The potential hotspots identified are marked (1, construction activity; 2, traffic intersection; 3, below the flyover).

Figure 7. Spatial map of aggregated median PM_2.5 concentrations during weekdays. The potential hotspots identified are marked (1, construction activity; 2, traffic intersection; 3, below the flyover).

Figure 8. Time-series plots of PM_2.5 concentrations on weekends.

Figure 9. Time-series plots of PM_2.5 concentrations on weekdays.

Figure 10. PM_2.5 dose for various regions of lungs (head [H], tracheobronchial [TB], and pulmonary [P]) at CBD and UB.