Simultaneous removal of ammonia and volatile organic compounds from composting of dead pigs and manure using pilot-scale biofilter

Figures & data

Table 1. Comparison of biofilter performance reported in some studies on NH₃ and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) removal

Pollutant	Biofilter media	Empty bed retention time (EBRT, s)	Inlet load (g. m^−3. h^−1)/^a (mg. m^−3. h^−1)	Removal efficiency (%)	Reference
NH3	Organic fraction of municipal solid wastes mixed with chopped pruning waste	86	0.85–7.5	95.9–98.8	Pagans, Font, and Sánchez (2005)
NH3	Digested wastewater sludge mixed with chopped pruning waste	86	6.67	99.4	Pagans, Font, and Sánchez (2005)
NH3	Animal by-products mixed with chopped pruning waste	86	21.7–67.1	46.7–89.5	Pagans, Font, and Sánchez (2005)
NH3	Compost	18–60	11.5	97–99	Yin and Xu (2009)
NH3	Sludge	30–60	9.4	95–99	Yin and Xu (2009)
NH3	Mixture of wood chips, straw and compost	30	0.8–2.6	85–98	Lee et al. (2013)
NH3	Mixture of compost and woodchip	34	5.24	35–80	Yang et al. (2014)
NH3	Mixture of high-density polyethylene and inorganic powders (e.g., activated carbon, zeolite, clay and slag)	60–100	2.7	2–98	Park, Shin, and Chung (2008)
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS)	Mixture of mature compost and yard waste	58.4	34 a	10–100	Hort et al. (2013)
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS)	Mixture of mature compost with sewage sludge and yard waste	58.4	34 a	13–100	Hort et al. (2013)
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS)	Wood bark	14–113	0.833–1.5	65–100	Smet et al. (1996a)
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS)	Compost	31	20.8	100	Smet et al. (1996a)
Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS)	Wood bark	14–113	0.5–1	65–100	Smet et al. (1996a)
Trimethylamine (TMA)	Activated sludge	319	2	90	Chang et al. (2004)
Trimethylamine (TMA)	Granular activatedcarbon	30–60	2	92	Ho et al. (2008)
Trimethylamine (TMA)	Compost	60	9.31	80–100	Ding et al. (2007)
Trimethylamine (TMA)	Sludge	60	9.13	61–100	Ding et al. (2007)
Methanethiol	Mixture of mature compost and yard waste	58.4	7.9 a	95–100	Hort et al. (2013)
Methanethiol	Mixture of mature compost with sewage sludge and yard waste	58.4	7.9 a	70–100	Hort et al. (2013)
Toluene	Wood charcoal	66–264	3.1–16	10–90	Zamir, Halladj, and Nasernejad (2011)
Toluene	Mixture of compost and beads	71–120	15.5–114.3	82–97	Rajamanickam and Baskaran (2017)
Mixture with benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes	Mixture of scoria and compost	83–138	/	66–98	Amin et al. (2017)

Notes. a: mg. m⁻³. h⁻¹;/: no data.

Table 2. Initial characteristics of composting materials

Material	pH	Water content (%)	Carbon content (%) (dry basis)	Nitrogen content (%) (dry basis)
Pig manure	6.8	78.2 ± 1.5	33.5 ± 1.6	3.4 ± 0.6
Corn stalk	n.d.	14.6 ± 1.7	39.2 ± 1.6	1.8 ± 0.5
Mixture	7.5	69.4 ± 2.6	34.4 ± 1.2	3.0 ± 0.4

Notes. n.d.: not detected.

Figure 1. Schematic of the composting and biofiltration system. (1) Fermentation tank; (2) air distribution pipe; (3) blower; (4) odor collection pipe; (5) deodorization fan; (6) valve, (7) mass flow meter; (8) flow meter; (9) biofilters; gas sampling point (10) from composting, (11) after biofiltration, and (12) in the air; (13) temperature loggers; (14) multichannel sampler; (15) vacuum pump; and (16) gas monitor

Table 3. Experimental arrangement of biofilters

Treatment	Biofilter	Experimental arrangement
1	Biofilters 1–3	Influent gas flow rate = 8.478 m^3.h^−1, EBRT = 30 s
2	Biofilters 4–6	Influent gas flow rate = 4.239 m^3.h^−1, EBRT = 60 s
3	Biofilters 7–9	Influent gas flow rate = 2.543 m^3.h^−1, EBRT = 100 s

Table 4. Initial and final characteristics of biofilter media

	Water content (%)	pH	Carbon content (% dry basis)	Nitrogen content (% dry basis)	NH4^+-N (% dry basis)
Initial	57.4 ± 2.5	6.9	30.8 ± 2.8	2.9 ± 0.7	0.26
Final
Biofilters 1–3	60.2 ± 3.3	6.8	25.7 ± 4.4	3.1 ± 0.6	0.55
Biofilters 4–6	61.5 ± 4.9	6.7	23.6 ±3.8	3.3 ± 0.5	0.61
Biofilters 7–9	61.6 ±5.5	6.7	23.1 ±4.0	3.4 ± 0.6	0.63

Figure 2. Temperature of composting piles (arrow means turning)

Table 5. Gas compound concentrations of volatile organic compounds during dead pigs and manure composting

Component	Detecti-on limits (mg.m^−3)	Compost time (d)																				OT (mg.m^−3)	OAVs	OT References
		0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	10	12	14	17	21	24	28	31	35	42	AV
Benzene	0.0034	9.32	48.6	51.0	28.8	17.9	48.5	33.4	31.1	42.6	30.2	22.9	22.9	10.9	4.67	8.88	3.44	18.1	0.00	80.9	27.0	2.7	0.01	Nagata and Takeuchi (1990)
Toluene	0.0026	554	32.5	259	219	92.1	252	79.0	48.7	2063	45.2	81.8	81.8	14.8	5.23	6.25	5.12	3.49	108	15.0	209	0.38	0.55	Cometto-Muniz and Abraham (2015)
Ethylbenzene	0.0005	26.1	56.0	149	125	25.5	126	54.7	25.9	24.9	27.1	40.3	40.3	1.14	-	1.30	-	20.4	1.51	7.19	44.2	0.17	0.26	Van Gemert (2011)
Chlorobenzene		5.86	2.68	3.08	4.57		1.58	3.00	1.26	-	1.43	1.54	1.54	0.00	-	-	-	-	4.80	-	2.6	0.98	0.003	Ruth (1986)
Naphthalene	0.0014	377	64.1	846	1711	1.39	1048	-	166	-	-	-	-	-	-	134	-	-	-	-	544	0.058	9.4	Ruth (1986)
Styrene	0.0076	109	216	254	277	73.0	272	189	71.9	9.86	108	111	111	10.3	-	9.63	9.85	7.57	11.0	10.7	103.	0.15	0.689	Nagata and Takeuchi (1990)
Orthodoxxylene	0.030	12.5	35.4	102	62.5	21.5	79.4	14.3	11.2	16.1	7.50	39.5	39.5	-	-	-	-	15.7	24.6	25.2	33.8	N-D	N-D
Meta xylene and P-xylene	0.0017	12.6	42.7	144	77.2	25.8	95.3	14.8	13.3	20.8	9.87	47.4	47.4	1.71	-	0.00	0.00	19.0	2.98	44.1	34.4	12	0.003	Ruth (1986)
1,3-Dichlorobenzene	0.0003	-	3.45	-	-	4.12	1.88	-	4.37	0.27	-	18.4	18.4	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	7.3	12	0.0006	Ruth (1986)
1,4-Dichlorobenzene	0.0009	-	0.92	-	-	1.62	-	-	1.88	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	1.5	12	0.0001	Ruth (1986)
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene	0.0009	10.2	-	84.7	78.3	-	13.9	-	-	-	0.91	13.7	13.7	-	-	-	-	18.7	17.7	1.70	25.4	N-D	N-D
Difluoro dichloromethane	0.0063	3.94	8.11	8.52	16.0	-	-	6.63	26.9	9.84	10.3	9.08	9.08	3.49	4.43	4.60	4.11	-	-	7.30	8.8	N-D	N-D
1,2-dibromoethane	0.0014	-	-	-	-	-	-	0.00	10.3	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	10.3	6.9	N-D	N-D
Vinyl chloride	0.0011	14.1	16.4	10.4	22.9	-	13.2	21.1	76.2	2.85	16.2	8.74	8.74	4.66	1.87	5.46	2.73	4.26	1.72	9.19	13.4	N-D	N-D
Methyl bromide	0.0013	1.30	0.00	1.47	1.78	-	1.54	-	0.00	2.37	1.86	-	-	4.28	1.50	1.44	2.29	-	-	-	1.7	80	0.00002	Ruth (1986)
Chloroethane	0.0084	3986	8.44	-	-	13.5	-	-	86.6	32.9	26.5	-	-	16.1	23.7	-	43.5	-	-	-	471	N-D	N-D
Trichlorofluoromethane	0.0012	-	-	7.50	9.79	2.05	15.3	-	10.3	3.83	5.25	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	7.7	N-D	N-D
1,1-dichloroethylene	0.0004	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	0.43	-	-	-	-	0.44	-	-	-	-	0.4	N-D	N-D
Trichlorotrifluoroethan	0.0012	-	-	-	3.61	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	3.6	0.34	0.001	Ruth (1986)
Dichloromethane	0.0005	9.66	7.14	22.4	156	47.5	61.3	22.8	526	174	105	13.7	13.7	35.4	38.5	24.0	40.4	248	7.63	214	93.0	160	0.001	Nagata and Takeuchi (1990)
1,1-dichloroethane	0.0004	-	-	0.80	0.57	0.48	0.54	-	-	37.2	11.7	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	8.6	N-D	N-D
Cis-1,2-dichloroethylene	0.0014	1.71	1.37	1.72	1.43	1.37	1.42	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	1.5	0.34	0.004	Ruth (1986)
Trichloromethane	0.0012	6.67	35.5	65.9	19.6	20.6	19.3	3.17	2.15	1.38	6.04	4.38	4.38	1.67	0.00	3.92	3.41	63.8	11.7	27.6	15.9	N-D	N-D
Carbon tetrachloride	0.0011	-	3.79	5.19	2.19	4.50	4.21	2.85	1.28	-	2.06	1.91	1.91	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	3.0	4.6	0.001	Nagata and Takeuchi (1990)
1,2-dichloroethane	0.0009	33.7	259	395	67.8	32.9	44.5	13.8	14.4	-	10.6	7.97	7.97	1.02	1.29	3.71	1.66	27.9	11.6	45.1	54.4	N-D	N-D
Trichloroethylene	0.0003	1.46	4.23	3.35	0.70	1.61	5.48	3.72	2.30	1.07	2.05	0.73	0.73	-	-	0.33		3.04	1.17	0.58	2.0	3.9	0.001	Nagata and Takeuchi (1990)
1,2-dichloropropane	0.0006	6.06	35.5	61.7	30.2	11.1	52.3	3.37	9.80	4.55	4.17	9.85	9.85	0.61	0.67	0.90	0.83	23.4	20.8	12.9	15.7	N-D	N-D
Trans 1,3-dichloropropene	0.0011	-	1.51	-	1.78	1.12	2.09	1.82	1.07	-	2.16	3.87	3.87	-	-	–	-	-	-	-	2.1	N-D	N-D
CIS 1,3-dichloropropene	0.0013	78.8	5.09	20.7	-	1.39	9.23	8.38	3.27	1.78	4.12	9.01	9.01	-	-	-	-	3.63	7.46	3.09	11.8	N-D	N-D
1,1,1-trichloroethane	0.0068	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	6.77	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	6.8	N-D	N-D
1,1,2-trichloroethane	0.0012	86.5	3.05	66.4	11.6	9.03	24.7	20.6	3.75	24.4	4.95	41.3	41.3	0.00	0.00	16.9	0.00	3.94	72.8	1.23	22.8	N-D	N-D
Tetrachloroethylene	0.0021	48.0	6.34	38.7	32.0	9.49	68.2	-	15.4	-	11.7	-	-	-	-	-	-	3.04	7.11	4.67	22.3	N-D	N-D
1,2-dibromoethane	0.0014	2.01	10.5	6.92	7.27	4.00	2.21	1.87	2.76	1.49	1.80	7.04	7.04	3.46	-	4.01	2.30	-	-	-	4.3	N-D	N-D
Tetrachloroethane	0.0012	35.7	99.6	78.1	184	32.9	73.7	9.25	25.5	911	13.6	16.4	16.4	1.23	-	1.25	2.22	16.5	78.1	10.9	84.6	N-D	N-D
Trimethylamine	0.0063	5729	146	6347	2598	274	-	-	47.0	37.6	0.00	132	132	20.0	27.4	986	0.00	-	698	149	912	0.00003	28,489	Nagata (2003)
Dimethyl sulfide	0.0004	0.00	386	3312	2054	396	1806	670	1883	165	156	0.00	0.00	1748	684	331	155	-	58.1	963	777	0.0076	102.3	Nagata and Takeuchi (1990)
Dimethyl disulfide	0.0004	1100	1784	5065	6540	832	4634	3071	0.00	4.66	376	0.00	0.00	878	845	1321	98.2	-	194	987	1980	0.0085	233.0	Nagata and Takeuchi (1990)
Dimethyl trisulfide	0.0003	3743	154	2173	2753	-	1781	19.9	1543	3.28	0.00	0.00	0.00	59.6	-	1133	58.6	-	417	644	762	0.0087	87.6	Nagata and Takeuchi (1990)

Notes. –Data below detection limit; AV: average of individual chemical concentration during the whole composting period;OT: Olfactory threshold; N-D: not data found; The unit of VOCs from the composting is μg.m⁻³.

Figure 3. NH₃ concentration inlet and outlet gas of biofilter and average RE of treatments with different content times

Figure 4. TVOCs inlet and outlet gas of biofilter and average RE for treatments with different content times of (a) DMS, (b) DMDS, (c) DMTS, and (d) TMA

Figure 5. (a) Variations in removal efficiency and elimination capacity of NH₃ with changes in inlet load and (b) influence of inlet concentration on RE and EC (The circle, EBRT 30s; triangle EBRT60s; cross, EBRT 90s)

Table 6. The solubility of DMS, DMDS, DMTS, and TMA

VOCs	Solubility in water
DMS	Slightly soluble in water;	2.2 * 10^4 mg/L at 25 °C
DMDS	Insoluble in water	3*10 ^3 mg/L at 25 °C
DMTS	Very slightly soluble in water	n.d.
TMA	Soluble in water	8.9 * 10^5 mg/L at 30 °C

n.d. means no date.

Figure 6. (a) Elimination capacity and (b) removal efficiency of DMS, DMDS, DMTS, and TMA versus inlet load

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