Correlates of Co-production: Evidence From a Five-Nation Survey of Citizens

Figures & data

TABLE 1 Descriptive Statistics

			Czech Republic n = 1,000		Denmark n = 1,011		Germany n = 1,000		France n = 952		United Kingdom n = 988
Variables	Min	Max	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
Co-production behaviors (index of 5 behaviors)
Public safety	0 = never does any	10 = does all 5 always	3.10	1.84	4.39	1.72	4.56	1.99	3.91	1.92	5.39	2.06
Environment	0 = never does any	10 = does all 5 always	6.66	1.59	5.63	1.73	6.15	1.67	6.22	1.71	6.08	1.72
Health	0 = never does any	10 = does all 5 always	5.71	1.85	4.60	1.78	5.30	1.92	5.10	1.91	5.37	1.92
Willingness to co-produce (volunteer)
Public safety	1 = no time at all	4 = few hrs/wk	2.38	0.98	2.63	1.07	2.30	1.00	2.23	1.05	2.32	1.11
Environment	1 = no time at all	4 = few hrs/wk	2.70	0.85	2.75	0.96	2.45	0.90	2.55	0.98	2.40	1.06
Health	1 = no time at all	4 = few hrs/wk	2.56	0.96	2.68	1.08	2.59	1.01	2.32	1.04	2.37	1.12
Efficacy of citizens (making a difference)
Public safety	1 = no difference	4 = big difference	2.75	0.90	3.12	0.89	2.99	0.98	2.97	0.91	3.16	0.90
Environment	1 = no difference	4 = big difference	3.25	0.76	3.54	0.72	3.08	0.94	3.35	0.78	3.41	0.80
Health	1 = no difference	4 = big difference	3.27	0.76	3.52	0.77	2.92	0.97	3.09	0.85	3.41	0.80
Government performance
Public safety	1 = very dissatisfied	4 = very satisfied	2.69	0.85	3.13	0.85	3.04	0.74	2.94	0.76	3.01	0.85
Environment	1 = very dissatisfied	4 = very satisfied	2.87	0.79	3.05	0.79	2.71	0.79	2.97	0.73	2.84	0.79
Health	1 = very dissatisfied	4 = very satisfied	2.89	0.83	3.07	0.86	2.90	0.78	2.87	0.80	3.24	0.77
Government information
Public safety	1 = very dissatisfied	4 = very satisfied	2.56	0.89	3.08	0.79	2.78	0.79	2.75	0.81	2.95	0.85
Environment	1 = very dissatisfied	4 = very satisfied	2.60	0.84	3.03	0.78	2.74	0.78	2.77	0.74	2.91	0.79
Health	1 = very dissatisfied	4 = very satisfied	2.71	0.85	3.06	0.82	2.69	0.81	2.94	0.70	3.21	0.80
Government consultation
Public safety	1 = very dissatisfied	4 = very satisfied	2.41	0.90	2.84	0.89	2.56	0.82	2.51	0.92	2.70	0.89
Environment	1 = very dissatisfied	4 = very satisfied	2.38	0.86	2.69	0.86	2.39	0.80	2.39	0.84	2.57	0.86
Health	1 = very dissatisfied	4 = very satisfied	2.83	0.89	2.71	0.90	2.40	0.82	2.64	0.82	2.94	0.86
Conditions
Public safety	1 = not at all safe	4 = very safe	2.87	0.78	3.57	0.73	3.33	0.76	3.27	0.84	3.35	0.84
Environment	1 = not at all good	4 = very good	2.84	0.74	3.68	0.58	3.29	0.71	3.36	0.69	3.46	0.69
Health	1 = not at all good	4 = very good	3.03	0.77	3.46	0.74	3.10	0.78	3.20	0.73	3.34	0.81
Demographic controls
Gender (female)	0 = male	1 = female	0.52	0.50	0.53	0.50	0.52	0.50	0.54	0.50	0.54	0.50
Age (in years)	18	96	44.85	16.10	48.03	16.41	48.09	17.08	48.00	17.71	48.77	17.07
University educated	0 = not univ. educated	1 = univ. educated	0.83	0.37	0.52	0.50	0.75	0.43	0.72	0.45	0.68	0.47
Urban resident	0 = not urban	1 = urban	0.16	0.37	0.34	0.47	0.23	0.42	0.41	0.49	0.45	0.50
Active in labor force	0 = not active	1 = active	0.66	0.48	0.67	0.47	0.59	0.49	0.53	0.50	0.59	0.49

TABLE 2 Regression Analysis of Co-production Behaviors (Index of Five Behaviors)

Ind. Var.	Czech Republic			Denmark			Germany			France			United Kingdom
	Safety	Environ	Health	Safety	Environ	Health	Safety	Environ	Health	Safety	Environ	Health	Safety	Environ	Health
Efficacy of citizens	0.09	0.09	0.07	0.16	0.18	0.15	0.08	0.14	0.19	0.20	0.19	0.17	0.12	0.21	0.18
Government performance	0.05	0.01	−0.03	0.00	−0.08	−0.06	−0.02	−0.01	0.08	0.01	−0.09	0.00	−0.02	−0.04	−0.06
Government information	0.01	0.04	0.03	0.00	0.06	0.09	0.06	0.05	0.01	−0.03	0.09	0.04	0.08	0.03	0.06
Government consultation	0.05	0.05	0.09	−0.05	−0.09	−0.09	0.05	0.01	−0.05	−0.01	−0.01	0.02	0.01	0.08	0.12
Conditions	−0.23	0.00	−0.03	−0.01	−0.02	0.03	−0.13	−0.01	−0.02	−0.07	−0.02	0.00	−0.07	−0.01	−0.05
Gender (female)	−0.03	0.11	0.15	0.07	0.07	0.18	−0.02	0.07	0.13	0.04	0.04	0.11	0.05	0.05	0.18
Age (in years)	0.13	0.09	0.01	0.28	0.01	0.14	0.32	0.18	0.14	0.20	0.15	0.24	0.28	−0.04	−0.01
University educated	0.04	0.05	0.08	−0.04	0.07	0.05	0.01	0.00	−0.03	−0.09	0.02	0.05	0.02	−0.06	0.04
Urban resident	−0.02	0.10	0.07	−0.04	0.03	0.03	−0.01	−0.02	0.01	0.02	0.02	0.01	−0.07	0.01	−0.01
Active in labor force	0.00	0.03	−0.05	0.06	−0.08	−0.04	0.09	−0.03	0.02	0.02	−0.03	−0.06	0.09	−0.06	−0.06
R ^2	0.08	0.05	0.06	0.09	0.06	0.09	0.13	0.05	0.07	0.10	0.07	0.12	0.10	0.07	0.09
Listwise n	811	905	905	947	947	947	711	858	779	701	849	770	850	901	877

TABLE 3 Regression Analysis of Willingness to Co-produce (Volunteering)

Ind. Var.	Czech Republic			Denmark			Germany			France			United Kingdom
	Safety	Environ	Health	Safety	Environ	Health	Safety	Environ	Health	Safety	Environ	Health	Safety	Environ	Health
Efficacy of citizens	0.18	0.17	0.11	0.28	0.25	0.21	0.09	0.18	0.25	0.26	0.20	0.17	0.26	0.28	0.18
Government performance	0.04	−0.07	−0.01	0.01	−0.06	−0.04	0.05	0.04	0.03	0.09	0.01	−0.07	0.02	−0.06	0.01
Government information	−0.03	0.05	0.03	0.03	0.00	0.02	0.06	0.02	−0.09	−0.09	0.07	−0.03	−0.03	−0.01	0.04
Government consultation	0.06	0.05	0.02	−0.09	−0.05	−0.05	−0.09	−0.07	0.03	0.04	−0.12	0.09	−0.01	−0.01	−0.01
Conditions	−0.05	−0.03	0.04	0.05	−0.02	−0.06	−0.03	−0.02	0.00	−0.03	0.05	0.00	−0.10	−0.03	−0.07
Gender (female)	0.02	0.04	0.13	0.02	−0.05	0.06	0.02	0.03	0.05	−0.05	−0.01	0.08	−0.03	−0.01	0.05
Age (in years)	−0.09	−0.09	−0.16	−0.08	−0.05	−0.06	−0.02	−0.10	−0.06	−0.01	0.00	0.00	−0.12	−0.14	−0.15
University educated	−0.04	−0.10	−0.04	−0.03	0.03	0.01	−0.15	0.01	−0.04	−0.07	0.00	−0.07	0.01	0.01	0.02
Urban resident	−0.04	−0.03	−0.01	−0.05	−0.11	−0.06	0.00	−0.09	−0.03	0.00	−0.05	0.00	−0.02	−0.01	0.02
Active in labor force	−0.01	−0.05	−0.08	−0.05	−0.06	−0.07	−0.01	−0.05	−0.06	−0.05	−0.02	−0.05	0.04	−0.03	−0.07
R ^2	0.05	0.06	0.07	0.10	0.08	0.06	0.04	0.06	0.07	0.08	0.06	0.05	0.09	0.09	0.06
Listwise n	808	911	918	947	947	947	717	865	802	697	848	771	856	901	906

TABLE 4 Regression Analysis of Efficacy of Citizens

Ind. Var.	Czech Republic			Denmark			Germany			France			United Kingdom
	Safety	Environ	Health	Safety	Environ	Health	Safety	Environ	Health	Safety	Environ	Health	Safety	Environ	Health
Government performance	0.04	0.09	0.02	0.06	0.08	0.12	0.11	0.20	0.05	0.10	0.06	−0.01	0.12	0.12	0.08
Government information	0.07	0.01	0.01	−0.01	0.02	0.06	0.18	0.11	0.04	0.00	0.00	0.02	−0.06	0.05	0.01
Government consultation	0.01	0.06	0.09	0.01	−0.04	0.02	0.03	−0.09	0.02	−0.04	−0.03	0.03	0.07	0.03	0.04
Conditions	0.00	−0.02	0.14	0.07	0.07	0.06	0.14	0.09	0.11	−0.01	0.03	0.07	0.20	0.15	0.10
Gender (female)	−0.03	0.04	−0.01	0.02	0.08	0.06	−0.03	−0.01	0.04	0.03	0.07	0.04	0.02	0.11	0.05
Age (in years)	−0.20	−0.20	−0.08	−0.05	−0.17	−0.19	−0.17	−0.24	−0.15	0.02	−0.02	0.04	0.00	−0.01	−0.04
University educated	0.05	0.03	0.12	0.05	0.02	0.09	0.05	0.06	0.10	0.07	0.18	0.08	0.04	0.07	0.09
Urban resident	0.04	−0.01	−0.03	0.04	0.03	−0.01	−0.06	−0.03	0.10	−0.04	−0.02	−0.04	0.03	0.03	−0.03
Active in labor force	0.01	−0.02	−0.01	0.11	0.05	−0.03	0.10	0.02	0.08	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.06	0.02	0.06
R ^2	0.06	0.06	0.06	0.04	0.05	0.08	0.17	0.14	0.09	0.02	0.04	0.01	0.08	0.08	0.05
Listwise n	816	916	920	947	947	947	730	874	815	704	853	777	860	908	911

TABLE 5 Profiles of the Focus Groups

Country	Policy Field	Total Participants	Background of Participants
Czech Republic	Community safety	7	Representatives from state police (two), city police (two), Supreme Court, a local Probation and Mediation Service, Union of Public Sector Employers
	Health	6	Representatives from Ministry of Health, Association of General Practitioners, Association of Czech Consumers, Czech Association of Social Workers, plus a doctor working in an elderly person's home and a doctor researching in a university
	Local environment	8	Representatives from the Ministry of Environment, Minstry of Finance, the National Network of Clean Cities, a town council, the national Institute for Structural Policy, plus two university professors working on local environmental policy and one representative from an environmental services provider
Denmark	Community safety	6	Representatives from the Prisons Directorate (two), a regional government, the corporate center of a municipal council, a municipal Social Services Department, a municipal Youth Service
	Health	8	Representatives from Ministry of Health Care and Pensions (two), health service agencies (three), hospital management (two), and health department of a municipal council
	Local environment	7	Seven officials working on environmental policy in municipal councils, including officers responsible for environmental planning, refuse service, recycling, and Agenda 21 issues
France	Community safety	6	Representatives from Ministry for Youth and Sports, a municipal police service, municipal Community Safety and Crime Prevention Partnership, municipal Department of Neighborhood Management, a Department of Neighbourhood Management in a Paris District, a Neighborhood Council in a Paris District
	Health	5	Two hospital doctors, one doctor in PREPSY Network, one member of Onco 94, one member of ARCAT Association
	Local environment	6	Representatives from municipal council departments (including Department of Parks and Open Spaces and Department of Neighborhood Management), local water agencies, a Neighborhood Council, plus a college lecturer
Germany	Community safety	6	Representatives from Department for Interior and Sports, Berlin police service (two), a nongovernmental organization (NGO) in probation, and an NGO for youth offenders (two)
	Health	5	Representatives from a public hospital, Berlin patients' advocacy service, the health visitor service, a care home for the elderly, and a local social care provider
	Local environment	8	Representatives from Federal Ministry of the Interior, Department for Environment and Nature in two Berlin districts, German Society for Waste Management, Independent Institute for Environmental Issues, Federal Agency for Consumer Protection and Food Safety, plus two private sector landscape architects providing environmental consultancy services
United Kingdom	Community safety	6	Representatives from Association of London Councils, Courts Service, IDeA (Local Government Improvement and Development Agency), Community Safety service in a London Borough Council, UK Neighbourhood Watch Trust (two)
	Health	8	Representatives from a Local Health Partnership, a Mental Health Trust (one official, one consumer representative), a council social services departments (three, including one customer relations manager), Picker Institute Europe (representing patients), National Consumer Council
	Local environment	6	Representatives of IDeA (Local Government Improvement and Development Agency), a London Borough Waste and Recycling Service, an Energy Adviser from a municipal council, ENCAMS (the Keep Britain Tidy national NGO) (two), Chartered Institution of Waste Management