A systematic review of intergenerational co-residence between older people and adult children

Figures & data

Figure 1. The screening process flow based on Covidence.

Table 1. The studies summary.

No.	Source	Location	Objectives	Inclusion criteria	Exclusion criteria	Research method	Outcomes
1	Chen (2019)	China	Investigating the determinants of preference for intergenerational co-residence and examining the effect of living arrangement concordance of older Chinese.	Older adults aged 60 years and older at the time of the survey and had at least one surviving child.	–	Cross-sectional study	Older adults brought up in urban areas, where cultural prescriptions and expression tend to be less traditional, were less likely to prefer co-residence. Also, the education levels of older people are regarded as an indicator of their ability to live independently. Actual living arrangements are highly predictive of the preference of older people to engage in intergenerational co-residence.
2	Choi (1995)	United States	Investigating the racial differences in the likelihood of intergenerational co-residence and contact frequency between ageing parents and their adult children.	Elderly persons aged 70 years and over in 1984 had at least one living child aged 18 and over.	Interview data from other years, except 1988.	Cross-sectional study	There is a racial difference in intergenerational co-residence when the parent's marital status is controlled. Married non-Hispanic older people are less likely to live with their adult children than African American older people.
3	Choi (2003)	United States	Finding the differences between the nonmarried parents’ and children's characteristics associated with continuing co-residence versus transitioning into or out of co-residence.	Community-dwelling men and women aged 70 and older and their co-residing adult children or grandchildren.	Older people who lived with their children or grandchildren who were under 21 years old or lived with other than their biological children.	Longitudinal study	There are no significant differences between ageing parents who are no longer co-residing with their children and those who are continuously co-residing.
4	Domingo and Asis (1995)	Philippines	Exploring the family's role in caring for the elderly, particularly in the face of rapid social change.	Elderly (in the ages 60–85) and adult children (ages 35g to the practice of intergenerational co-resid55)	–	Qualitative research	Intergenerational co-residence could make ageing parents feel the burden of supporting other family members or fear being the burden for their adult children. Conversely, adult children found difficulties being the sandwich generation and the need to be patient in caring for ageing parents.
5	Gerber et al. (2019)	United States	Investigating the impact of intergenerational co-residence on older people’ affect.	Older adults aged 50–74 years old.	–	Cross-sectional study	Co-residence has a significant positive impact on parents’ negative affect and a significant negative impact on parents’ positive affect. Also, parental income level significantly moderates the association between co-residence and parental affect.
6	Gonzales (2007)	United States	Examining a more direct measure of cultural values, alongside English language proficiency, socioeconomic resources, need, and child network characteristics, as the co-residence determinants	Non-institutionalised persons ages 65 and older who may have been born in or immigrated to the United States. They should at least have one surviving child.	–	Longitudinal study	A stronger belief in traditional cultural support values will increase the likelihood of co-residence with an adult child, where more educated parents are less likely to co-reside with an adult child. Conversely, parents with more economic resources are more likely to live with an adult child.
7	Isengard and Szydlik (2012)	Sweden; France; The Netherlands; Denmark; Belgium; Germany; Austria; Switzerland; Spain; Greece; Italy	Exploring the characteristics of co-residence between adult children and their parents.	People aged 50 years and older from 11 European countries: Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, France, Spain, Italy, and Greece.	–	Cross-sectional study	Several factors influence adult children's and their parent's engagement in cohabitation: the child's employment status and education levels, parents’ income, parental house, parents’ health, and the family structure.
8	Johar and Maruyama (2011)	Indonesia	Investigating factors influencing cohabitation decisions by ageing parents and their adult children.	Elderly individuals 60 years of age and older with at least one surviving adult child (15 years old and older).	–	Longitudinal study	Cohabitation is influenced more significantly by the costs and benefits of children. Wealthy parents live with their children who still depend upon their parents.
9	Johar et al. (2015)	Japan	Investigating the determinants of parent-child co-residence in Japan.	Japanese aged 65 and over with at least one surviving child.	Older parents who live with other than their biological children and live in the institution.	Longitudinal study	Intergenerational co-residence responds to the heightened care needs of parents, including the loss of a spouse and health deterioration. Also, ageing parents who are engaged in this living arrangement usually have sizeable assets that make them capable of supporting their children.
10	Ken and Teerawichitchainan (2015)	Vietnam	Examining the relationship between living arrangements and the psychological well-being of older adults.	Older adults aged 60 and older who had at least one living child at the time of the survey.	–	Cross-sectional study	Intergenerational co-residence has a positive and significant impact on the psychological well-being of older adults.
11	Lee et al. (1995)	Taiwan	Expanding the understanding of living arrangements by presenting systematic qualitative results from focus groups conducted with ageing parents and younger adults in Taiwan.	Older adults aged 60–85 and younger adults aged 35–59 who had elderly parents in Taiwan.	–	Qualitative research	Co-residence of ageing parents and their married sons is preferred. Other living arrangements are secondary options when the ageing parents cannot live with their married sons. The parents’ most significant factor influencing their decision to live in intergenerational co-residence is their health.
12	Ren and Treiman (2015)	China	Evaluating the impact of ageing parents’ living arrangements on their emotional well-being.	Older people aged 60 and older who lived with adult children.	Elderly respondents living with children under the age of 16.	Cross-sectional study	Living independently with one's spouse is the preferred arrangement from the point of view of emotional well-being, measured by happiness, life satisfaction, and depression. However, living in 3-generation families, with adult children and grandchildren, is equally beneficial, except that widow in such arrangements tends to suffer more significant depression than elder couples living independently.
13	Smits et al. (2010)	The Netherlands	Investigating the extent to which situations and events associated with the support needs of both generations determine co-residence.	Adult children aged 30–40 in 2004.	Adult children over 40 in 2004 and who had only one living parent in 1995. Also, when the children or parents lived in institutions.	Cross-sectional study	There is evidence of the importance of both generations’ support needs, but the needs of the adult children seem more critical than those of the parents, at least for people aged 30-40.
14	Takagi et al. (2007)	Japan	Evaluating the variation in co-residence arrangements in the Japanese context.	Individuals aged 65 years and older who had at least one living child.	Respondents who had missing values on relevant variables that could not reasonably be imputed.	Cross-sectional study	The motives for intergenerational co-residence in Japan are diverse and sometimes deviate from the traditional form. Also, filial piety is a malleable cultural script with different manifestations depending on the contextual characteristics that enable or inhibit the formation of multigenerational households.
15	Teerawichitchainan et al. (2015)	Thailand, Vietnam, and Myanmar	Investigating how intergenerational co-residence, gender of the coresident child, and location of the nearest non-coresident child are associated with the mental health of older parents.	Older adults aged 60 and above with multiple children and at least one non-coresident child.	Older adults in single-child families live with their only child.	Cross-sectional study	Co-residence with a child of a culturally preferred gender improves the psychological health of Vietnamese and Thai elders but with different implications. Meanwhile, for Myanmar, results indicate almost no significant differences in psychological health among older people who live with a child of culturally preferred and non-preferred gender.
16	VanWey and Cebulko (2007)	Brazil	Examining intergenerational co-residence among rural farm families near Santarem, Para, Brazil.	Children of the female household head aged 20 and older.	Adopted children and children under age 20 or had missing information on age.	Cross-sectional study	Children with lower levels of education are more likely to remain on the farm with their parents. Also, marriage makes the daughters leave the house. Conversely, the sons can bring their wives to live in their parent's house.
17	Won and Lee (1999)	South Korea	Determining whether structural factors have similar influences in spite of known cultural differences.	People aged 60 and over with children.	Elderly without a married child.	Cross-sectional study	There are no cultural differences between older people in South Korea and the United States in deciding whether to involve intergenerational co-residence.

Table 2. Intergenerational co-residence based on regions.

Factors	Regions
	Americas	Europe	East Asia	Southeast Asia
Ageing parents
Financial circumstances	Gonzales (2007) Gerber et al. (2019)	Smits et al. (2010) Isengard and Szydlik (2012)	Lee et al. (1995) Won and Lee (1999) Takagi et al. (2007) Johar et al. (2015) Chen (2019)	Domingo and Asis (1995) Johar and Maruyama (2011) Ken and Teerawichitchainan (2015)
Health conditions	Choi (1995) Choi (2003) Gonzales (2007)	Smits et al. (2010) Isengard and Szydlik (2012)	Lee et al. (1995) Johar et al. (2015) Chen (2019)	Domingo and Asis (1995) Johar and Maruyama (2011) Ken and Teerawichitchainan (2015)
Kinship systems	Gonzales (2007)		Lee et al. (1995) Won and Lee (1999) Takagi et al. (2007) Johar et al. (2015)	Domingo and Asis (1995) Teerawichitchainan et al. (2015)
Marital status	Gonzales (2007)	Smits et al. (2010)	Won and Lee (1999) Takagi et al. (2007) Johar et al. (2015) Ren and Treiman (2015) Chen (2019)	Johar and Maruyama (2011)
Level of education	Choi (1995) Gonzales (2007)		Lee et al. (1995) Won and Lee (1999) Johar et al. (2015) Chen (2019)
Number of family members	Gonzales (2007)	Smits et al. (2010) Isengard and Szydlik (2012)	Takagi et al. (2007)	Domingo and Asis (1995) Johar and Maruyama (2011)
Adult Children
Financial circumstances	Choi (2003)	Smits et al. (2010) Isengard and Szydlik (2012)		Domingo and Asis (1995) Johar and Maruyama (2011)
Kinship systems	VanWey and Cebulko (2007)	Smits et al. (2010)	Lee et al. (1995)	Domingo and Asis (1995)
Marital status	Choi (2003) VanWey and Cebulko (2007)	Smits et al. (2010) Isengard and Szydlik (2012)	Johar et al. (2015)	Johar and Maruyama (2011)
Level of education	VanWey and Cebulko (2007)	Isengard and Szydlik (2012)
Number of family members		Smits et al. (2010) Isengard and Szydlik (2012)		Johar and Maruyama (2011)

Chen, T. (2019). Living arrangement preferences and realities for elderly Chinese: Implications for subjective wellbeing. Ageing and Society, 39(8), 1557–1581. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X18000041

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Choi, N. G. (1995). Racial differences in the determinants of the coresidence of and contacts between elderly parents and their adult children. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 24(1-2), 77–98. https://doi.org/10.1300/J083V24N01_07

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Choi, N. G. (2003). Nonmarried aging parents’ and their adult children's characteristics associated with transitions into and out of intergenerational coresidence. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 40(3), 7–29. https://doi.org/10.1300/J083v40n03_03

 Google Scholar

Domingo, L. J., & Asis, M. M. B. (1995). Living arrangements and the flow of support between generations in the Philippines. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 10(1-2), 21–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00972030

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Gerber, A., Heid, A. R., & Pruchno, R. (2019). Adult children living with aging parents: The association between income and parental affect. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 88(3), 215–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091415018758448

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Gonzales, A. M. (2007). Determinants of parent-child coresidence among older Mexican parents: The salience of cultural values. Sociological Perspectives, 50(4), 561–577. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2007.50.4.561

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Isengard, B., & Szydlik, M. (2012). Living apart (or) together? Coresidence of elderly parents and their adult children in Europe. Research on Aging, 34(4), 449–474. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027511428455

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Johar, M., & Maruyama, S. (2011). Intergenerational cohabitation in modern Indonesia: Filial support and dependence. Health Economics, 20(S1), 87–104. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1708

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Johar, M., Maruyama, S., & Nakamura, S. (2015). Reciprocity in the formation of intergenerational coresidence. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 36(2), 192–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-013-9387-7

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ken, Y., & Teerawichitchainan, B. (2015). Living arrangements and psychological well-being of the older adults after the economic transition in Vietnam. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 70(6), 957–968. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv059

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lee, M.-L., Lin, H.-S., & Chang, M.-C. (1995). Living arrangements of the elderly in Taiwan: Qualitative evidence. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 10(1-2), 53–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00972031

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Ren, Q., & Treiman, D. J. (2015). Living arrangements of the elderly in China and consequences for their emotional well-being. Chinese Sociological Review, 47(3), 255–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/21620555.2015.1032162

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Smits, A., van Gaalen, R. I., & Mulder, C. H. (2010). Parent-child coresidence: Who moves in with whom and for whose needs? Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(4), 1022–1033. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00746.x

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Takagi, E., Silverstein, M., & Crimmins, E. (2007). Intergenerational coresidence of older adults in Japan: Conditions for cultural plasticity. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 62(5), S330–S339. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/62.5.S330

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Teerawichitchainan, B., Pothisiri, W., & Long, G. T. (2015). How do living arrangements and intergenerational support matter for psychological health of elderly parents? Evidence from Myanmar, Vietnam, and Thailand. Social Science & Medicine, 136-137, 106–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.05.019

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

VanWey, L. K., & Cebulko, K. B. (2007). Intergenerational coresidence among small farmers in Brazilian Amazônia. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(5), 1257–1270. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00445.x

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Won, Y. H., & Lee, G. R. (1999). Living arrangements of older parents in Korea. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 30(2), 315–328. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.30.2.315

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar