Investigating the nexus between CO₂ emissions, economic growth, energy consumption and pilgrimage tourism in Saudi Arabia

Figures & data

Table 1. Data and sources.

Variable	Describe	Source
Number of pilgrims	Person	Al-Medina Education Center (annexes)
Energy consumption	kg of oil equivalent per capita	WDI
Economic growth	GDP growth (annual %)	WDI
Carbon emissions (CO2)	kt	WDI
OPEC crude oil price	in U.S. dollars per barrel	The Statistics Portal (Statista)

Source: World Development Indicators (https://databank.worldbank.org/), The Statistics Portal (Statista) (www.statista.com), Al-Medina Education Center (annexes) (http://www.mec1.org/umra/en/).

Table 2. ADF unit root test results.

Variable	None	Trend and intercept	Intercept
log_co2	–0.885(0.327)	–0.782(0.960)	–0.631(0.853)
log_en	–0.725(0.397)	–1.822(0.678)	–2.314(0.171)
log_gdp	1.902(0.985)	–3.130(0.111)	–2.971(0.044)**
log_hajj	2.090(0.990)	–3.679(0.033)	–1.846(0.354)
log_oil	0.654(0.854)	–2.068(0.550)	–2.360(0.158)
First difference
log_co2	–6.902(0.000)*	–7.293(0.000)*	–6.918(0.000)*
log_en	–6.960(0.000)*	–7.723(0.000)*	–6.886(0.000)*
log_gdp	–3.993(0.000)*	–4.963(0.001)*	–4.612(0.000)*
log_hajj	–7.898(0.000)*	–8.587(0.000)*	–8.652(0.000)*
log_oil	–6.069(0.000)*	–6.512(0.000)*	–6.296(0.000)*

* and ** denotes respectively %1 and %5 statistically significance level.

Source: Authors’ Calculations.

Table 3. Johansen cointegration test results, dependent variable: log_co2.

Null hypothesis	Trace statistic	0.05 critical value	Probability
r = 0	87.160	79.341	0.011*
r ≤ 1	56.615	55.245	0.037*
r ≤ 2	30.653	35.010	0.135
r ≤ 3	9.245	18.397	0.555
r ≤ 4	0.288	3.841	0.591

Note. AIC, SC and HQ results are based on determining the optimal lag length (lag 1).

* Denotes statistically significance for %5 critical value.

Source: Authors’ Calculations.

Table 4. DOLS and FMOLS test results, dependent variable: log_co2.

	DOLS		FMOLS
Regressors	Coefficient	P-value	Coefficient	P-value
log_en	0.712	0.000*	0.892	0.000*
log_gdp	–0.701	0.415	–3.125	0.004*
log_hajj	1.551	0.209	3.256	0.046**
log_oil	0.267	0.656	1.696	0.079***

* , ** and *** denotes respectively %1, %5 and %10 statistically significant level.

Source: Authors’ Calculations.

Table 5. Granger causality test results.

Null hypothesis	F-statistic	P-value
log_en ≠ > log_co2	0.066	0.797
log_co2 ≠ > log_en	1.210	0.277
log_gdp ≠ > log_co2	2.194	0.145
log_co2 ≠ > log_gdp	0.058	0.810
log_hajj ≠ > log_co2	0.696	0.408
log_co2 ≠ > log_hajj	4.484	0.039**
log_oil ≠ > log_co2	1.965	0.167
log_co2 ≠ > log_oil	0.690	0.410
log_gdp ≠ > log_en	2.122	0.152
log_en ≠ > log_gdp	0.931	0.339
log_hajj ≠ > log_en	0.420	0.519
log_en ≠ > log_hajj	1.094	0.301
log_oil ≠ > log_en	2.032	0.160
log_en ≠ > log_oil	2.725	0.105
log_hajj ≠ > log_gdp	10.482	0.002*
log_gdp ≠ > log_hajj	3.743	0.059***
log_oil ≠ > log_gdp	1.495	0.227
log_gdp ≠ > log_oil	2.614	0.112
log_oil ≠ > log_hajj	0.286	0.595
log_hajj ≠ > log_oil	8.363	0.005*

* , ** and *** denotes respectively %1, %5 and %10 statistically significant level.

Source: Authors’ Calculations.