Novel research methods to evaluate renewable energy and energy-related greenhouse gases: evidence from BRICS economies

Figures & data

Figure 1. MMQR graph.

Source: Author's own calculations.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics.

	$\mathrm{ERGHG}$	$\mathrm{GDP}$	$\mathrm{ENEF}$	$\mathrm{ELRE}$	$\mathrm{PRI}$
Mean	2006328.	2.45E + 12	5.954429	2.439211	62.30319
Median	1060509.	1.37E + 12	5.152808	1.236578	63.52083
Maximum	9558575.	1.43E + 13	11.00072	12.11841	70.62500
Minimum	278867.4	2.03E + 11	1.615754	0.009356	32.50000
Std. Dev.	2566122.	3.13E + 12	2.562872	2.951075	7.256132
Skewness	1.836875	2.286544	0.550290	1.422270	−2.414081
Kurtosis	5.186734	7.456055	2.168700	4.517091	9.964396
Jarque-Bera	76.15934	169.8732	7.926410	43.30407	299.2249
Probability	0.000000	0.000000	0.019002	0.000000	0.000000
$\text{Diagnostic Tests}$
$\mathrm{Heterogeneity}/\text{Homogeneity Check}$
$\mathrm{Statistics}$		$\stackrel{\sim }{\Delta }$		${\stackrel{\sim }{\Delta }}_{\mathrm{Adjusted}}$
		4.764***		5.694***
$\mathrm{Cross}-\text{Sectional Dependence}$
$\mathrm{ERGHG}$		$\mathrm{GDP}$		$\mathrm{ENEF}$
5.178***		13.656***		13.585***
$\mathrm{ELRE}$		$\mathrm{PRI}$		–
11.207***		3.918***		–

Note that the significance levels for 1%, 5%, and 10% are shown by the letters ***, ** and *.

Source: Author's own calculations.

Table 2. Unit root test.

$\mathrm{Statistics}$	$\text{Trend and Intercept}$
	$\mathrm{I}(0)$	$\mathrm{I}(1)$
$\mathrm{ERGHG}$	−3.817***	–
$\mathrm{GDP}$	−2.399	−3.337***
$\mathrm{ENEF}$	−1.846	−4.256***
$\mathrm{ELRE}$	−1.094	−3.263***
$\mathrm{PRI}$	−1.648	−3.464***

Note that the significance levels for 1%, 5% and 10% are shown by the letters ***, ** and *.

Source: Author's own calculations.

Table 3. Cointegration testing.

$\mathrm{Statistics}$	$\mathrm{Value}$	$p-\mathrm{value}$
${\mathrm{G}}_{\mathrm{t}}$	−3.142***	0.006
${\mathrm{G}}_{\mathrm{a}}$	−8.094	0.713
${\mathrm{P}}_{\mathrm{t}}$	−11.008***	0.000
${\mathrm{P}}_{\mathrm{a}}$	−13.544**	0.012

Note that the significance levels for 1%, 5% and 10% are shown by the letters ***, ** and *.

Source: Author's own calculations.

Table 4. Method of moments quantile regression (MMQR).

$\mathrm{Variable}(\mathrm{s})$	Location	Scale	${\mathrm{Q}}_{0.25}$$(p-\mathrm{value})$	${\mathrm{Q}}_{0.50}$$(p-\mathrm{value})$	${\mathrm{Q}}_{0.75}$$(p-\mathrm{value})$	${\mathrm{Q}}_{0.90}$$(p-\mathrm{value})$
$\mathrm{GDP}$	1.075***	−0.013	1.085*** (0.000)	1.071*** (0.000)	1.062*** (0.000)	1.057*** (0.000)
$\mathrm{ENEF}$	−0.878***	0.0798	−0.940*** (0.000)	−0.859*** (0.000)	−0.803*** (0.000)	−0.778*** (0.000)
$\mathrm{ELRE}$	−0.108***	0.0203	−0.124** (0.048)	−0.103*** (0.003)	−0.089*** (0.000)	−0.083*** (0.002)
$\mathrm{PRI}$	−0.637***	0.0159	−0.649 (0.184)	−0.633** (0.017)	−0.622*** (0.001)	−0.617*** (0.003)
$\mathrm{Constant}$	−5.26***	0.1869	−5.413*** (0.000)	−5.223*** (0.000)	−5.092*** (0.000)	−5.033*** (0.000)

Note that the significance levels for 1%, 5% and 10% are shown by the letters ***, ** and *.

Source: Author's own calculations.

Table 5. Robustness check using mean group (MG) test.

$\mathrm{Variable}(\mathrm{s})$	$\mathrm{Coefficients}$
$\mathrm{GDP}$	0.716***
$\mathrm{ENEF}$	−0.106***
$\mathrm{ELRE}$	−0.060***
$\mathrm{PRI}$	−0.235***
$\mathrm{Constant}$	−2.168***

Note that the significance levels for 1%, 5% and 10% are shown by the letters ***, ** and *.

Source: Author's own calculations.

Table 6. Dumitrescu-Hurlin panel causality test.

${\mathrm{H}}_{\mathrm{o}}$	${\mathrm{Wald}}_{\mathrm{Stats}}$	${\overline{\mathrm{Z}}}_{\mathrm{Stats}}$	$p-\mathrm{value}$
$\mathrm{GDP}\mathrm{ }–\mathrm{ }\mathrm{ERGHG}$	9.652***	10.53	0.000
$\mathrm{ERGHG}\mathrm{ }-\mathrm{ }\mathrm{GDP}$	3.148**	2.48	0.013
$\mathrm{ENEF}\mathrm{ }-\mathrm{ }\mathrm{ERGHG}$	8.061***	8.56	0.000
$\mathrm{ERGHG}\mathrm{ }–\mathrm{ }\mathrm{ENEF}$	5.142***	4.23	0.000
$\mathrm{ELRE}\mathrm{ }–\mathrm{ }\mathrm{ERGHG}$	5.818***	5.78	0.000
$\mathrm{ERGHG}\mathrm{ }–\mathrm{ }\mathrm{ELRE}$	6.256***	6.32	0.000
$\mathrm{PRI}\mathrm{ }–\mathrm{ }\mathrm{ERGHG}$	4.961***	3.01	0.000
$\mathrm{ERGHG}\mathrm{ }–\mathrm{ }\mathrm{PRI}$	4.316***	3.92	0.000

Note that the significance levels for 1%, 5% and 10% are shown by the letters ***, ** and *.

Source: Author's own calculations.