Economic determinants of national carbon emissions: perspectives from 119 countries

Figures & data

Table 1. Descriptive statistics.

Methods	EPC	BEDI	CBSP	EDB	LPI	FIMP	REC
Mean	4.733	6.499	12.409	67.830	2.971	14.432	29.786
Median	3.538	7	5.400	69.765	2.810	14.439	23.212
Maximum	21.622	10	127.800	86.764	4.200	33.190	90.333
Minimum	0.052	0	0.100	35.565	1.950	0.578	0.001
Std. Dev.	4.597	2.351	18.413	11.495	0.555	7.484	24.895
Skewness	1.501	−0.585	3.082	−0.580	0.504	0.351	0.824
Kurtosis	5.132	2.731	16.026	2.613	2.299	2.770	2.579

Note: EPC shows carbon emissions per capita, BEDI shows business extent to discourse index, CBSP shows cost of business start-up procedures, EDB shows ease of doing business, LPI shows logistics performance index, FIMP shows fuel imports, and REC shows renewable energy consumption.

Source: Author’s estimation.

Table 2. Correlation matrix.

Variables	EPC	BEDI	CBSP	EDB	LPI	FIMP	REC
EPC	1
	–
BEDI	0.163	1
	(0.076)	–
CBSP	−0.391	−0.137	1
	(0.000)	(0.135)	–
EDB	0.556	0.308	−0.601	1
	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	–
LPI	0.582	0.193	−0.399	0.720	1
	(0.000)	(0.035)	(0.000)	(0.000)	–
FIMP	−0.314	−0.021	0.062	−0.132	−0.191	1
	(0.000)	(0.818)	(0.499)	(0.150)	(0.036)	–
REC	−0.577	−0.131	0.511	−0.483	−0.384	0.058	1
	(0.000)	(0.152)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.528)	–

Note: EPC shows carbon emissions per capita, BEDI shows the business extent to discourse index, CBSP shows the cost of business start-up procedures, EDB shows the ease of doing business, LPI shows logistics performance index, FIMP shows fuel imports, and REC shows renewable energy consumption.

Source: Author’s estimation.

Figure 1. Influence statistics.

Source: Authors’ estimate.

Figure 2. Leverage plots.

Note: EPC shows carbon emissions per capita, BEDI shows the business extent to discourse index, CBSP shows the cost of business start-up procedures, EDB shows the ease of doing business, LPI shows logistics performance index, FIMP shows fuel imports, and REC shows renewable energy consumption.

Source: Author’s estimation.

Table 3. Cross-sectional regression estimates.

Variables	Cross-sectional regression	Robust least squares regression: S-estimator	Markov switching regime-1
BEDI	0.021	−0.015	−1.256*
CBSP	0.006	−0.038*	0.161*
EDB	0.052	0.0009	0.208*
LPI	2.498*	3.536*	3.374*
FIMP	−0.133*	−0.005	−0.419*
REC	−0.073*	−0.016**	−0.112*
Constant	−2.326	−5.846*	1.739
Statistical and Diagnostic Tests
R^2	0.537	0.511
Adjusted R^2	0.512	0.485
LM Test	0.656
Heteroskedasticity Test	0.001

Note: * and ** shows 1%, and 5% significance level. EPC shows carbon emissions per capita, BEDI shows the business extent to discourse index, CBSP shows the cost of business start-up procedures, EDB shows the ease of doing business, LPI shows logistics performance index, FIMP shows fuel imports, and REC shows renewable energy consumption.

Source: Author’s estimation.

Figure 3. CUSUM and CUSUM square estimates.

Source: Author’s estimates.

Table 4. Impulse response estimates of EPC.

Period	EPC	BEDI	CBSP	EDB	LPI	FIMP	REC
2022	4.660246	0	0	0	0	0	0
2023	−0.127478	−0.081009	−0.119554	0.685462	−0.282860	0.587937	−0.374319
2024	−0.562348	0.519243	0.519406	0.026648	−0.519705	0.300275	0.487870
2025	−0.109683	−0.283501	0.097968	−0.005043	−0.043761	−0.074788	0.125433
2026	0.084451	−0.024842	−0.093066	0.020871	0.149142	−0.072096	−0.100375
2027	0.047006	0.015276	−0.048667	0.038560	0.055201	−0.037372	−0.070872
2028	−0.027734	0.010161	0.010949	0.001390	−0.010081	0.025560	0.001785
2029	−0.020621	0.001062	0.016237	−0.010944	−0.020461	0.015196	0.020482
2030	0.004249	−0.009185	0.001475	−0.004055	−0.000166	−0.004828	0.002596
2031	0.007287	−0.001089	−0.005806	0.002342	0.006472	−0.004579	−0.006012

Note: EPC shows carbon emissions per capita, BEDI shows the business extent to discourse index, CBSP shows the cost of business start-up procedures, EDB shows the ease of doing business, LPI shows logistics performance index, FIMP shows fuel imports, and REC shows renewable energy consumption.

Source: Author’s estimation.

Table 5. Variance decomposition analysis of EPC.

Period	S.E.	EPC	BEDI	CBSP	EDB	LPI	FIMP	REC
2022	4.660246	100	0	0	0	0	0	0
2023	4.773956	95.36429	0.028795	0.062715	2.061624	0.351063	1.516719	0.614791
2024	4.923949	90.94715	1.139089	1.171673	1.940864	1.444004	1.797610	1.559611
2025	4.936652	90.52903	1.463029	1.205033	1.930992	1.444439	1.811321	1.616154
2026	4.942155	90.35674	1.462300	1.237812	1.928478	1.532293	1.828570	1.653807
2027	4.943750	90.30750	1.462311	1.246704	1.933318	1.543772	1.833105	1.673291
2028	4.943927	90.30417	1.462629	1.247105	1.933187	1.544077	1.835647	1.673184
2029	4.944117	90.29897	1.462521	1.248088	1.933528	1.545671	1.836450	1.674772
2030	4.944133	90.29849	1.462857	1.248089	1.933584	1.545662	1.836534	1.674789
2031	4.944152	90.29799	1.462851	1.248217	1.933591	1.545821	1.836606	1.674923

Note: EPC shows carbon emissions per capita, BEDI shows the business extent to discourse index, CBSP shows the cost of business start-up procedures, EDB shows the ease of doing business, LPI shows logistics performance index, FIMP shows fuel imports, and REC shows renewable energy consumption.

Source: Author’s estimation.

Table A1. List of countries.

Afghanistan	Chile	Georgia	Korea, Rep.	Netherlands	Slovak Republic
Albania	China	Germany	Kuwait	New Zealand	Solomon Islands
Angola	Colombia	Ghana	Kyrgyz Republic	Niger	South Africa
Argentina	Comoros	Greece	Lao PDR	Nigeria	Spain
Armenia	Congo, Rep.	Guatemala	Latvia	North Macedonia	Sweden
Australia	Costa Rica	Guyana	Lebanon	Norway	Switzerland
Austria	Cote d'Ivoire	Honduras	Lithuania	Oman	Thailand
Bahamas	Croatia	Hungary	Luxembourg	Pakistan	Togo
Belarus	Cyprus	Iceland	Madagascar	Paraguay	Tunisia
Belgium	Czech Republic	India	Malawi	Peru	Turkey
Benin	Denmark	Indonesia	Malaysia	Philippines	Uganda
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Dominican Republic	Iran, Islamic Rep.	Maldives	Poland	Ukraine
Brazil	Ecuador	Ireland	Malta	Portugal	United Arab Emirates
Brunei Darussalam	Egypt, Arab Rep.	Israel	Mauritania	Romania	United States
Bulgaria	El Salvador	Italy	Mauritius	Russian Federation	Uruguay
Burkina Faso	Estonia	Jamaica	Mexico	Sao Tome and Principe	Uzbekistan
Burundi	Fiji	Japan	Moldova	Saudi Arabia	Vietnam
Cambodia	Finland	Jordan	Mongolia	Senegal	Zambia
Canada	France	Kazakhstan	Montenegro	Sierra Leone	Zimbabwe
Central African Republic	Gambia	Kenya	Morocco	Singapore	Total: 119 Countries