The prioritized design elements for urban regeneration in the era of autonomous vehicles

Figures & data

Table 1. Objectives for urban regeneration in the AV era.

Type*	Authors	Ecological environment	Public space	Transportation system	Smart infrastructure	Resource logistics	Renewableenergy	Socialwelfare	Culture lifestyle	Local economy	Adaptivereuse
		18	23	27	27	12	14	15	23	22	16
AF	Milakis et al. (2017)	○		○	○		○			○
	Papa and Ferreira (2018)	○	○	○	○		○		○	○	○
	Stead and Vaddadi (2019)	○	○	○	○			○	○	○	○
	Yigitcanlar, Wilson, and Kamruzzaman (2019)	○	○	○	○	○	○	○	○	○	○
SP	Corey et al. (2017)		○	○	○	○		○
	Glus, Rothman, and Iacobucci (2017)			○	○			○	○	○	○
PD	Hyundai (2020)			○	○	○	○	○	○	○
	FXFowle and Sam Schwartz (2017)	○	○	○	○	○			○	○
	Nissan Europe (2016)	○	○	○	○		○
	Toyota USA (2020)	○	○	○	○	○	○		○	○	○
AF+SP	González-González, Nogués, and Stead (2020)	○	○	○	○	○	○	○	○	○	○
	Rothnie, Uffer, and Ghojeh (2016)		○	○	○				○	○
AF+PD	Barber, Carey, and Kang (2018)			○	○	○	○		○		○
	Baumgardner (2015)	○	○	○	○			○	○	○	○
	Fraedrich et al. (2019)	○	○	○	○		○		○	○	○
	Jencek and Unterreiner (2018)	○	○	○	○				○	○
	Jeong and Lee (2017)		○	○	○	○		○	○	○	○
	KPF (2018)		○	○	○		○		○	○	○
	Skinner and Bidwell (2016)	○	○	○	○	○	○	○	○	○
	Tierney and Ruhl (2017)	○	○	○	○
SP+PD	Audi Urban Future Initiative (2015)		○	○	○		○		○	○	○
	Mohamed et al. (2018)	○	○	○	○	○		○	○	○	○
	Riggs, Appleyard, and Johnson (2020)	○	○	○	○			○	○		○
AF+SP+PD	Kisner et al. (2019)	○	○	○	○	○	○	○	○	○
	Knorr (2018)	○	○	○	○			○	○	○	○
	Oh et al. (2017)		○	○	○			○	○	○	○
	SideWalk Labs (2019)	○	○	○	○	○	○	○	○	○

* Literature type: analysis and forecasting (AF), strategies and policy (SP), planning and design (PD)

Figure 1. Derivation of design elements via literature review and expert feedback.

Table 2. Design elements for urban regeneration in the AV era.

Category	Design elements		Objectives
Environment and landscape (EL)	EL 1	Urban forest	Improve air quality and expand green areas via transforming urban vehicle-occupied space (VOS) to forest
	EL 2	Green infrastructure	Restore biodiversity and manage rainwater by converting VOS to biotopes and green infrastructure
	EL 3	Public open space	Increase the number of collective spaces for recreational use at different scales via planning VOS into parks and plazas
	EL 4	Pedestrian friendly street	Provide generous pedestrian zones and improve their conditions in relation to building frontage via reclaiming curbsides
	EL 5	Elevated connection	Enhance urban connectivity via repurposing the existing viaducts to elevated pathways
	EL 6	Resilient waterfront	Increase buffer capacity of waterfront and improve connections between city and the waterfront via reclaiming VOS
Transportation and technology (TT)	TT 1	Inclusive design	Ensure a safe and convenient urban environment both physically and digitally for all
	TT 2	Mobility lane	Plan protected mobility lanes for bicycles, personal transporters, and autonomous vehicles on the existing roads and ensure flexible operation of them on demand
	TT 3	Smart infrastructure	Improve the existing transportation infrastructure to feature intelligent automation on AVs’ parking, charging, sensoring, and securing process
	TT 4	Shared mobility service	Enhance public transportation network via establishing mobility-as-a-service in blind spots or last miles
	TT 5	Smart mobility hub	Upgrade the existing stations and terminals as smart mobility hubs and redevelop them as mixed-use facilities
	TT 6	AV as a movable space	Plan a new interior or exterior space on demand via attaching a 3d-printed AV to a building or clustering with other AVs
Resource and energy (RE)	RE 1	Green retrofitting	Manage building energy consumption and make an efficient use of VOS in a building via remodeling or relocating mechanical, electrical, and plumbing equipment
	RE 2	Green building envelope	Mitigate heat Island effect and manage rainwater runoff and supply on a building by converting a building envelope into green system
	RE 3	Renewable energy	Reduce a building’s energy consumption via expansion of renewable energy systems including photovoltaic and solar thermal on reclaimed VOS
	RE 4	Urban agriculture	Supply food resources for a community by expanding urban agriculture such as vertical production and rooftop farms on reclaimed VOS
	RE 5	AV as movable power	Establish on demand movable power supply system via sharing AVs’ electric power with a building or community
	RE 6	Demolition waste recycling	Recycle waste generated from the existing building and infrastructure demolition for smart transportation infrastructure construction
Society and culture (SC)	SC 1	Civic cultural use	Repurpose VOS in civic or office buildings into cultural and athletic uses
	SC 2	Independent living	Plan healthcare facilities and independent living communities for both senior and disabled on reclaimed VOS
	SC 3	School community center	Reuse VOS in educational facilities as mixed-use or cultural programs for community in response to the decline of school age population
	SC 4	Public housing	Provide more housing opportunities for vulnerable social groups by redeveloping the existing public parking lots and garages into public housing
	SC 5	Historic tourism	Improve tourism facilities and public realm in historic districts via utilizing VOS
	SC 6	Emergency management	Expand support facilities in preparation for both natural and social disaster relief via utilizing VOS
Economy and industry (EI)	EI 1	Retail corridor	Create vibrant neighborhood retail streets by utilizing curbsides and shared spaces
	EI 2	Old downtown revival	Revitalize local economy via converting of VOS into shared accommodations and improve the traditional market environment in old downtowns
	EI 3	Automated fulfillment	Expand automated fulfillment centers via reusing VOS or incorporating them into the existing transportation infrastructure such as interchange or underneath viaduct
	EI 4	Creative co-workspace	Plan diverse and flexible co-workspace and common areas via repurposing VOS of the existing offices
	EI 5	Living lab	Expand living labs for research and development (R&D) institutes at different scales and locations via utilizing VOS
	EI 6	Tech industrial complex	Plan and relocate facilities for new technology industrial companies via utilizing VOS of the existing industrial complex

Figure 2. Urban spatial type classification.

Figure 3. Survey respondents’ attributes.

Table 3. Reliability test results.

Survey sections		Cronbach’s alpha	Number of items
Regeneration category		0.720	5
Design elements	Environment and landscape (EL)	0.716	6
	Transportation and technology (TT)	0.736	6
	Resource and energy (RE)	0.734	6
	Society and culture (SC)	0.739	6
	Economy and industry (EI)	0.794	6
Urban spatial types		0.800	10

Figure 4. Hierarchical composite analysis model.

Table 4. Category weight analysis results.

Regeneration category	Overall		Industry		Government		Academia
	$W_x$ *	Rank	$W_x$	Rank	$W_x$	Rank	$W_x$	Rank
Environment and landscape (EL)	0.202	2	0.202	2	0.207	2	0.200	2
Transportation and technology (TT)	0.219	1	0.216	1	0.214	1	0.225	1
Resource and energy (RE)	0.196	4	0.197	4	0.179	5	0.198	3
Society and culture (SC)	0.187	5	0.185	5	0.200	3	0.186	5
Economy and industry (EI)	0.197	3	0.199	3	0.200	3	0.191	4

* $W_x$= category weighting factor

Table 5. Element weight analysis results.

Design elements		Overall		Industry		Government		Academia
		$W_{yl}$*	$Rank$	$W_{yl}$	$Rank$	$W_{yl}$	$Rank$	$W_{yl}$	$Rank$
EL 1	Urban forest	0.176	3	0.178	3	0.159	4	0.178	3
EL 2	Green infrastructure	0.159	4	0.157	4	0.165	3	0.160	4
EL 3	Public open space	0.185	2	0.182	1	0.195	1	0.186	2
EL 4	Pedestrian friendly street	0.185	1	0.182	1	0.177	2	0.194	1
EL 5	Elevated connection	0.150	5	0.148	6	0.159	4	0.152	5
EL 6	Resilient waterfront	0.145	6	0.153	5	0.146	6	0.128	6
TT 1	Inclusive design	0.185	1	0.183	1	0.183	1	0.188	1
TT 2	Mobility lane	0.175	3	0.173	2	0.175	3	0.178	3
TT 3	Smart infrastructure	0.176	2	0.172	3	0.182	2	0.180	2
TT 4	Shared mobility service	0.164	4	0.165	4	0.149	5	0.167	4
TT 5	Smart mobility hub	0.158	5	0.165	4	0.156	4	0.144	5
TT 6	AV as a movable space	0.144	6	0.143	6	0.149	5	0.144	5
RE 1	Green retrofitting	0.175	2	0.176	1	0.171	2	0.176	3
RE 2	Green building envelope	0.171	3	0.174	2	0.158	4	0.170	4
RE 3	Renewable energy	0.176	1	0.173	3	0.190	1	0.180	1
RE 4	Urban agriculture	0.157	5	0.163	4	0.158	4	0.143	6
RE 5	AV as movable power	0.168	4	0.162	5	0.171	2	0.178	2
RE 6	Demolition waste recycling	0.153	6	0.153	6	0.152	6	0.154	5
SC 1	Civic cultural use	0.167	3	0.167	4	0.151	5	0.173	3
SC 2	Independent living	0.175	1	0.172	1	0.189	1	0.177	2
SC 3	School community center	0.164	5	0.168	2	0.170	3	0.155	5
SC 4	Public housing	0.172	2	0.168	2	0.176	2	0.179	1
SC 5	Historic tourism	0.156	6	0.162	6	0.151	5	0.145	6
SC 6	Emergency management	0.167	4	0.163	5	0.164	4	0.171	4
EI 1	Retail corridor	0.168	2	0.169	3	0.149	6	0.171	2
EI 2	Old downtown revival	0.166	4	0.167	4	0.170	2	0.162	5
EI 3	Automated fulfillment	0.163	6	0.158	6	0.163	5	0.173	1
EI 4	Creative co-workspace	0.166	4	0.163	5	0.170	2	0.171	2
EI 5	Living lab	0.170	1	0.173	1	0.170	2	0.165	4
EI 6	Tech industrial complex	0.167	3	0.170	2	0.177	1	0.158	6

* $W_{yl}$= element weighting factor

Table 6. Total weight analysis results.

Design elements		Overall		Industry		Government		Academia
		$T{W}_{zl}$*	$Rank$	$T{W}_{zl}$	$Rank$	$T{W}_{zl}$	$Rank$	$T{W}_{zl}$	$Rank$
EL 1	Urban forest	0.036	7	0.036	6	0.033	16	0.036	7
EL 2	Green infrastructure	0.032	21	0.032	20	0.034	9	0.032	20
EL 3	Public open space	0.037	5	0.037	4	0.040	1	0.037	6
EL 4	Pedestrian friendly street	0.037	4	0.037	4	0.037	6	0.039	4
EL 5	Elevated connection	0.030	27	0.030	29	0.033	16	0.031	24
EL 6	Resilient waterfront	0.029	29	0.031	25	0.030	24	0.026	30
TT 1	Inclusive design	0.040	1	0.034	1	0.040	2	0.042	1
TT 2	Mobility lane	0.038	3	0.037	2	0.038	5	0.040	3
TT 3	Smart infrastructure	0.038	2	0.037	3	0.039	3	0.041	2
TT 4	Shared mobility service	0.036	6	0.036	7	0.032	20	0.038	5
TT 5	Smart mobility hub	0.034	9	0.036	7	0.033	15	0.032	17
TT 6	AV as a movable space	0.031	22	0.031	26	0.032	20	0.032	17
RE 1	Green retrofitting	0.034	10	0.035	9	0.031	22	0.035	10
RE 2	Green building envelope	0.033	11	0.034	11	0.028	28	0.034	11
RE 3	Renewable energy	0.035	8	0.034	12	0.034	14	0.036	8
RE 4	Urban agriculture	0.031	26	0.032	17	0.028	28	0.028	28
RE 5	AV as movable power	0.033	15	0.032	18	0.031	22	0.035	9
RE 6	Demolition waste recycling	0.030	28	0.030	28	0.027	30	0.030	25
SC 1	Civic cultural use	0.031	23	0.031	24	0.030	25	0.032	19
SC 2	Independent living	0.033	16	0.032	19	0.038	4	0.033	14
SC 3	School community center	0.031	25	0.031	22	0.034	13	0.029	27
SC 4	Public housing	0.032	19	0.031	22	0.035	8	0.033	12
SC 5	Historic tourism	0.029	30	0.030	30	0.030	25	0.027	29
SC 6	Emergency management	0.031	24	0.030	27	0.033	18	0.032	21
EI 1	Retail corridor	0.033	13	0.034	14	0.030	27	0.033	15
EI 2	Old downtown revival	0.033	17	0.033	15	0.034	10	0.031	23
EI 3	Automated fulfillment	0.032	20	0.031	21	0.033	19	0.033	13
EI 4	Creative co-workspace	0.033	17	0.033	16	0.034	10	0.033	15
EI 5	Living lab	0.033	12	0.034	10	0.034	10	0.031	22
EI 6	Tech industrial complex	0.033	14	0.034	13	0.036	7	0.030	26

* $T{W}_{zl}$= total weighting factor

Table 7. Spatial weight analysis results.

Spatial types		Overall		Industry		Government		Academia
		$W_s$*	$Rank$	$W_s$	$Rank$	$W_s$	$Rank$	$W_s$	$Rank$
A	Basements	0.110	4	0.110	3	0.105	7	0.112	3
B	Lower floors	0.116	1	0.116	1	0.120	1	0.115	2
C	Middle floors	0.052	10	0.052	10	0.060	10	0.050	10
D	Upper floors	0.072	9	0.073	9	0.064	9	0.074	9
E	Open space in private	0.102	8	0.107	7	0.094	8	0.095	8
F	Open space in public	0.108	7	0.103	8	0.109	5	0.118	1
G	Streets	0.110	4	0.110	5	0.112	3	0.110	4
H	Parking only	0.112	2	0.112	2	0.116	2	0.109	6
I	Automotive facilities	0.108	6	0.108	6	0.109	5	0.108	7
J	Transportation infrastructure	0.111	3	0.110	3	0.112	3	0.110	4

* $W_s$= spatial weighting factor

Table 8. Composite weight analysis results.

● = $C{W}_{tp}\ge 64$ ◎ = $64>C{W}_{mp}\ge 48$ ○ = $48>C{W}_{lp}$				Spatial types
				Type	A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J
				$p_s$	7	10	1	2	3	4	7	9	5	8
Design elements			$p_{zl}$*	$c_s$$c_{zl}\ast \ast$	24	25	14	16	26	20	20	29	29	27
Environment and landscape (EL)	EL 1	Urban forest	24	6					◎	◎	◎	●	●	●
	EL 2	Green infrastructure	10	6					○	○	○	◎	◎	◎
	EL 3	Public open space	26	8	●	●			◎	◎	◎	●	●	●
	EL 4	Pedestrian friendly street	27	8	●	●			◎	◎	◎	●	●	●
	EL 5	Elevated connection	4	8	○	○			○	○	○	◎	○	○
	EL 6	Resilient waterfront	2	6					○	○	○	○	○	○
Transportation and technology (TT)	TT 1	Inclusive design	30	10	●	●	◎	◎	●	●	●	●	●	●
	TT 2	Mobility lane	28	3						◎	◎			●
	TT 3	Smart infrastructure	29	8	●	●			●	◎	●	●	●	●
	TT 4	Shared mobility service	25	8	◎	●			◎	◎	◎	●	●	●
	TT 5	Smart mobility hub	22	9	◎	●		◎	◎	◎	◎	●	●	●
	TT 6	AV as a movable space	9	10	◎	◎	○	○	◎	○	○	◎	◎	◎
Resource and energy (RE)	RE 1	Green retrofitting	21	6	◎	◎	○	○				●	◎
	RE 2	Green building envelope	19	6	◎	◎	○	○				◎	◎
	RE 3	Renewable energy	23	10	●	●	◎	◎	◎	◎	◎	●	●	●
	RE 4	Urban agriculture	5	10	○	◎	○	○	○	○	○	◎	◎	◎
	RE 5	AV as movable power	16	10	◎	◎	○	○	◎	◎	◎	●	◎	◎
	RE 6	Demolition waste recycling	3	5						○	○	○	○	○
Society and culture (SC)	SC 1	Civic cultural use	8	8	○	◎	○	○	○			◎	◎	◎
	SC 2	Independent living	13	8	◎	◎	○	○	◎			◎	◎	◎
	SC 3	School community center	5	8	○	○	○	○	○			◎	○	◎
	SC 4	Public housing	12	6		◎	○	○	○			◎	◎
	SC 5	Historic tourism	1	8	○	○			○	○	○	○	○	○
	SC 6	Emergency management	7	7	○	◎		○	○			◎	◎	◎
Economy and industry (EI)	EI 1	Retail corridor	18	8	◎	◎			◎	◎	◎	●	◎	◎
	EI 2	Old downtown revival	13	8	◎	◎			◎	◎	◎	◎	◎	◎
	EI 3	Automated fulfillment	11	6	○	◎			○			◎	◎	◎
	EI 4	Creative co-workspace	13	8	◎	◎	○	○	◎			◎	◎	◎
	EI 5	Living lab	19	10	◎	●	○	○	◎	◎	◎	●	◎	●
	EI 6	Tech industrial complex	17	8	◎	◎	○	○	◎			◎	◎	◎

* $p_{zl}$= total weight ($T{W}_{zl}$) converted into points, $p_s$= spatial weight ($W_s$) converted into points

** $C_{zl}$= number of applicable design elements, $C_s$= number of applicable spatial types

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