Spatially neighborhood and socially non-neighborhood: illustrating social capital perception of neighbors around the apartment complex

Figures & data

Figure 1. Urban landscape including apartment complexes in Seoul.

Figure 2. Distribution of apartment complexes in Seoul.

Table 1. Variable description and data source.

Variables	Description	Unit	Source
Dependent variable
Cooperation with neighbors	The degree to which you give and receive help with neighbors (5 Likert)	Individual	Seoul Survey
Trust of regional society	Trust in family, neighbors and public institutions (5 Likert)
Altruism for vulnerable person	Altruism of the disabled, the elderly, and women (5 Likert)
Independent
Apartment district ratio
APT area ratio_total (%)	Total apartment district areas/total residential zoning areas	Gu	APT Housing Data
APT area ratio_over 500 households (%)	Apartments district areas (over 500 households)/total residential zoning areas
APT area ratio_over 1000 household (%)	Apartments district areas (over 1000 households)/total residential zoning areas
Socio-economic attribute
Gender	Male = 0, Female = 1	Individual	Seoul Survey
Age	10–19, 20–29, 30–39, 40–49, 50–59, over 60
Education	Above BA = 1, under = 0
Total income	Total households income monthly	Household
Regional economic level	Mean value of housing price in each Gu	Gu	Housing Data
Number of family member	1 person, 2 persons, 3 persons, 4 persons, over 5 persons	Household	Seoul Survey
Home ownership	Yes = 1, No = 0
Residence length	Under 10 years, 10–19 years, 20–29 years, 30–39 years, 40–49 years, over 50 years
Married	Yes = 1, No = 0	Individual
Employed	Yes = 1, No = 0

Table 2. Summary of statistics.

Variable			Observation	Mean	SD	Min	Max
Dependent variable
Cooperation with neighbors			220,622	3.666	1.190	1	5
Trust of regional society			220,622	3.355	0.713	1	5
Altruism for the vulnerable person			220,622	3.172	0.666	1	5
Apartment district ratio
APT area ratio_total (%)			125	16.194	7.396	2.610	38.600
APT area ratio_over 500 households (%)			125	11.492	5.586	1.720	29.430
APT area ratio_over 1000 household (%)			125	6.878	4.254	0.000	19.100
Demographic attribute
Gender (Male = 0, Female = 1)			220,622	0.481	0.500	0	1
Age (reference: 10–19)	20–29		220,622	0.124	0.330	0	1
	30–39		220,622	0.188	0.391	0	1
	40–49		220,622	0.198	0.398	0	1
	50–59		220,622	0.198	0.399	0	1
	Over 60		220,622	0.228	0.419	0	1
Education (Above BA = 1, under = 0)			220,622	0.340	0.474	0	1
Total income (KRW*)			220,622	4,853	2,108	250	9,250
Regional economic level			125	630.877	225.339	350.782	1,492.159
Number of family member (reference: 1 person)	2 persons		220,622	0.226	0.418	0	1
	3 persons		220,622	0.323	0.468	0	1
	4 persons		220,622	0.322	0.467	0	1
	over 5 persons		220,622	0.052	0.223	0	1
Home ownership (Yes = 1, No = 0)			220,622	0.596	0.491	0	1
Length of residence (reference: under 10 years)		10–19 years	220,622	0.256	0.436	0	1
		20–29 years	220,622	0.061	0.238	0	1
		30–39 years	220,622	0.019	0.137	0	1
		40–49 years	220,622	0.006	0.079	0	1
		over 50 years	220,622	0.002	0.042	0	1
Married (Yes = 1, No = 0)			220,622	0.666	0.472	0	1
Employed (Yes = 1, No = 0)			220,622	0.864	0.343	0	1

*KRW is roughly equivalent to the 2020 exchange rate of 1.1 USD.

Figure 3. Apartment district ratio in Seoul, South Korea.

Figure 4. Apartment district ratio over 1000 households in Seoul, South Korea.

*gu means “autonomous district.”

Table 3. Result for total apartment district ratio of each housing type.

Social capital	Single & multifamily housing			Apartment complex
	Cooperation	Trust	Altruism	Cooperation	Trust	Altruism
	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)
Apartment district ratio	0.974*** (0.005)	0.988* (0.005)	0.983*** (0.005)	1.010* (0.005)	1.008 (0.004)	1.019*** (0.004)
Gender (Female = 1)	1.042*** (0.011)	0.970** (0.010)	0.952*** (0.010)	0.996 (0.012)	0.954*** (0.011)	0.939*** (0.011)
Age	0.969*** (0.004)	1.030*** (0.004)	1.004 (0.004)	0.985** (0.005)	1.022*** (0.005)	1.005 (0.005)
Education (Above BA = 1)	1.093*** (0.013)	0.968** (0.011)	0.998 (0.012)	1.153*** (0.015)	0.994 (0.013)	0.985 (0.012)
In (total income)	0.982 (0.011)	1.004 (0.011)	0.979* (0.011)	0.978 (0.013)	0.948*** (0.012)	1.022 (0.013)
In (regional economic level)	2.337*** (0.419)	3.093*** (0.544)	1.680** (0.299)	1.797** (0.363)	3.376*** (0.671)	0.314*** (0.063)
Number of Family	1.042*** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.036*** (0.007)	1.003 (0.007)	1.001 (0.007)
Home ownership (Yes = 1)	1.035** (0.012)	1.001 (0.011)	1.004 (0.011)	1.105*** (0.014)	1.031* (0.013)	1.031* (0.013)
Length of residence	1.007 (0.007)	1.040*** (0.007)	1.003 (0.007)	1.020* (0.009)	1.030*** (0.009)	0.998 (0.009)
Married (Yes = 1)	1.171*** (0.016)	0.993 (0.013)	0.999 (0.013)	1.144*** (0.018)	1.044** (0.016)	1.008 (0.015)
Employed (Yes = 1)	0.906*** (0.015)	0.960* (0.016)	1.035* (0.017)	0.892*** (0.017)	0.973 (0.018)	0.996 (0.018)
N	123,214	123,214	123,214	97,408	97,408	97,408
Fixed-effect (region)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Fixed-effect (year)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Adj-R^2	0.134	0.376	0.112	0.144	0.388	0.130
LR test χ^2	17176.2***	57022.9***	14441.6***	14644.3***	46994.8***	13402.1***

O.R. = Odds Ratio, S.E. = Standard Error.

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Table 4. Result for apartment district ratio of middle and large scale.

Social capital	Cooperation			Trust			Altruism
	Total	Over 500	Over 1000	Total	Over 500	Over 1000	Total	Over 500	Over 1000
	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)	O.R.(S.E.)
Apartment district ratio	0.974*** (0.005)	0.948*** (0.006)	0.872*** (0.008)	0.988* (0.005)	0.979*** (0.006)	0.961*** (0.009)	0.983*** (0.005)	0.975*** (0.006)	0.973*** (0.009)
Gender (Female = 1)	1.042*** (0.011)	1.042*** (0.011)	1.042*** (0.011)	0.970** (0.010)	0.970** (0.010)	0.970** (0.010)	0.952*** (0.010)	0.952*** (0.010)	0.952*** (0.010)
Age	0.969*** (0.004)	0.969*** (0.004)	0.969*** (0.004)	1.030*** (0.004)	1.030*** (0.004)	1.030*** (0.004)	1.004 (0.004)	1.004 (0.004)	1.004 (0.004)
Education (Above BA = 1)	1.093*** (0.013)	1.092*** (0.013)	1.091*** (0.013)	0.968** (0.011)	0.968** (0.011)	0.968** (0.011)	0.998 (0.012)	0.997 (0.012)	0.997 (0.012)
In (total income)	0.982 (0.011)	0.982 (0.011)	0.982 (0.011)	1.004 (0.011)	1.004 (0.011)	1.004 (0.011)	0.979* (0.011)	0.979* (0.011)	0.979* (0.011)
In (regional economic level)	2.337*** (0.419)	2.771*** (0.500)	3.870*** (0.701)	3.093*** (0.544)	3.263*** (0.578)	3.430*** (0.610)	1.680** (0.299)	1.736** (0.311)	1.652** (0.297)
Number of Family	1.042*** (0.006)	1.042*** (0.006)	1.041*** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)
Home ownership (Yes = 1)	1.035** (0.012)	1.035** (0.012)	1.035** (0.012)	1.001 (0.011)	1.001 (0.011)	1.001 (0.011)	1.004 (0.011)	1.003 (0.011)	1.004 (0.011)
Length of residence	1.007 (0.007)	1.007 (0.007)	1.007 (0.007)	1.040*** (0.007)	1.040*** (0.007)	1.040*** (0.007)	1.003 (0.007)	1.003 (0.007)	1.003 (0.007)
Married (Yes = 1)	1.171*** (0.016)	1.171*** (0.016)	1.170*** (0.016)	0.993 (0.013)	0.993 (0.013)	0.993 (0.013)	0.999 (0.013)	0.999 (0.013)	0.999 (0.013)
Employed (Yes = 1)	0.906*** (0.015)	0.906*** (0.015)	0.907*** (0.015)	0.960* (0.016)	0.960* (0.016)	0.960* (0.016)	1.035* (0.017)	1.035* (0.017)	1.035* (0.017)
N	123,214	123,214	123,214	123,214	123,214	123,214	123,214	123,214	123,214
Fixed-effect (region)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Fixed-effect (year)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Adj-R^2	0.134	0.134	0.135	0.376	0.376	0.376	0.112	0.112	0.112
LR test χ^2	17176.2	17214.4	17349.8	57022.9	57027.8	57034.2	14441.6	14444.0	14436.3

O.R. = Odds Ratio, S.E. = Standard Error.

*p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.

Table A1. Result of robustness test for total apartment district ratio of each housing type.

Social capital	Single & multifamily housing			Apartment complex
	Cooperation	Trust	Altruism	Cooperation	Trust	Altruism
	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)
Apartment district ratio	0.974*** (0.005)	0.988* (0.005)	0.983*** (0.005)	1.010* (0.005)	1.008 (0.005)	1.019*** (0.005)
Gender (Female = 1)	1.042*** (0.011)	0.970** (0.010)	0.952*** (0.010)	0.996 (0.012)	0.954*** (0.011)	0.939*** (0.011)
Age	0.969*** (0.004)	1.030*** (0.005)	1.004 (0.004)	0.985** (0.005)	1.022*** (0.005)	1.005 (0.005)
Education (Above BA = 1)	1.093*** (0.013)	0.968** (0.011)	0.998 (0.012)	1.153*** (0.015)	0.994 (0.013)	0.985 (0.013)
In (total income)	0.982 (0.012)	1.004 (0.011)	0.979 (0.011)	0.978 (0.014)	0.948*** (0.012)	1.022 (0.013)
In (regional economic level)	2.337*** (0.413)	3.093*** (0.537)	1.680** (0.308)	1.797** (0.352)	3.376*** (0.666)	0.314*** (0.064)
Number of Family	1.042*** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.036*** (0.007)	1.003 (0.007)	1.001 (0.007)
Home ownership (Yes = 1)	1.035** (0.011)	1.001 (0.011)	1.004 (0.011)	1.105*** (0.014)	1.031* (0.013)	1.031* (0.013)
Length of residence	1.007 (0.007)	1.040*** (0.007)	1.003 (0.007)	1.020* (0.009)	1.030*** (0.009)	0.998 (0.009)
Married (Yes = 1)	1.171*** (0.016)	0.993 (0.013)	0.999 (0.013)	1.144*** (0.018)	1.044** (0.016)	1.008 (0.015)
Employed (Yes = 1)	0.906*** (0.016)	0.960* (0.016)	1.035* (0.016)	0.892*** (0.018)	0.973 (0.018)	0.996 (0.018)
N	123,214	123,214	123,214	97,408	97,408	97,408
Fixed-effect (region)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Fixed-effect (year)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Adj-R^2	0.134	0.376	0.112	0.144	0.388	0.130
Wald test χ^2	16643.0***	45704.7***	13913.4***	13445.6***	38598.6***	12975.1***

O.R. = Odds Ratio, S.E. = Standard Error.

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Table B1. Result of robustness test for apartment district ratio of middle and large scale.

Social capital	Cooperation			Trust			Altruism
	Total	Over 500	Over 1000	Total	Over 500	Over 1000	Total	Over 500	Over 1000
	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)	O.R. (Robust S.E.)
Apartment district ratio	0.974*** (0.005)	0.948*** (0.006)	0.872*** (0.008)	0.988* (0.005)	0.979** (0.006)	0.961*** (0.009)	0.983*** (0.005)	0.975*** (0.007)	0.973*** (0.010)
Gender (Female = 1)	1.042*** (0.011)	1.042*** (0.011)	1.042*** (0.011)	0.970** (0.010)	0.970** (0.010)	0.970** (0.010)	0.952*** (0.010)	0.952*** (0.010)	0.952*** (0.010)
Age	0.969*** (0.004)	0.969*** (0.004)	0.969*** (0.004)	1.030*** (0.005)	1.030*** (0.005)	1.030*** (0.005)	1.004 (0.004)	1.004 (0.004)	1.004 (0.004)
Education (Above BA = 1)	1.093*** (0.013)	1.092*** (0.013)	1.091*** (0.013)	0.968** (0.011)	0.968** (0.011)	0.968** (0.011)	0.998 (0.012)	0.997 (0.012)	0.997 (0.012)
In (total income)	0.982 (0.012)	0.982 (0.012)	0.982 (0.012)	1.004 (0.011)	1.004 (0.011)	1.004 (0.011)	0.979 (0.011)	0.979 (0.011)	0.979 (0.011)
In (regional economic level)	2.337*** (0.413)	2.771*** (0.494)	3.870*** (0.692)	3.093*** (0.537)	3.263*** (0.571)	3.430*** (0.601)	1.680** (0.308)	1.736** (0.321)	1.652** (0.308)
Number of Family	1.042*** (0.006)	1.042*** (0.006)	1.041*** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)	1.019** (0.006)
Home ownership (Yes = 1)	1.035** (0.011)	1.035** (0.011)	1.035** (0.011)	1.001 (0.011)	1.001 (0.011)	1.001 (0.011)	1.004 (0.011)	1.003 (0.011)	1.004 (0.011)
Length of residence	1.007 (0.007)	1.007 (0.007)	1.007 (0.007)	1.040*** (0.007)	1.040*** (0.007)	1.040*** (0.007)	1.003 (0.007)	1.003 (0.007)	1.003 (0.007)
Married (Yes = 1)	1.171*** (0.016)	1.171*** (0.016)	1.170*** (0.016)	0.993 (0.013)	0.993 (0.013)	0.993 (0.013)	0.999 (0.013)	0.999 (0.013)	0.999 (0.013)
Employed (Yes = 1)	0.906*** (0.016)	0.906*** (0.016)	0.907*** (0.016)	0.960* (0.016)	0.960* (0.016)	0.960* (0.016)	1.035* (0.016)	1.035* (0.016)	1.035* (0.016)
N	123,214	123,214	123,214	123,214	123,214	123,214	123,214	123,214	123,214
Fixed-effect (region)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Fixed-effect (year)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Adj-R^2	0.134	0.134	0.135	0.376	0.376	0.376	0.112	0.112	0.112
LR test χ^2	16643.0	16670.5	16749.4	45704.7	45703.9	45707.9	13913.4	13914.2	13906.1

O.R. = Odds Ratio, S.E. = Standard Error.

*p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.