Physical improvement directions for goshiwons as an alternative of livable micro-house in South Korea

Figures & data

Figure 1. The variety of how the interior of goshiwon looks like. Following the site location for this study, picture A was taken at a Goshiwon located in Mapo-gu, picture B was taken in Seongbuk-gu, and picture C was taken in Dongjak-gu area.

Figure 2. Framework for this study.

Table 1. Summary of regulations and laws related to the specifications of goshiwons.

Law	Related regulations
Minimum Housing Standards (Enforced in 2011)	The minimum size is 14 m^2.
Multi-living Facility Building Standards (Enforced in 2015)	Cooking facilities and bathtubs inside the room are not allowed. Shower rooms and toilets are allowed inside the room. Rooms located in the basement are not allowed. Shared facilities are allowed to be in the basement. Each establishment must at least have laundry room, lounge, and cooking facility as the shared facilities. Minimum width of corridor is 120 cm for single-load type (rooms only on one side of the corridor) and 150 cm for double-load type. There must be sufficient room-to-room noise cancellation (normal conversation should not be audible in the next room).
Crime Prevention Building Standards (Enforced in 2021)	In case of an establishment located in a building with other non-dwelling establishments, a dedicated entrance apart from other establishments is mandatory. Main entrance must be equipped with access control facilities, so that outsider access can be minimized. Hierarchy of public and private space should be clearly recognized by the design or used material. Sufficient lighting facilities shall be planned for entrances and corridors. Installation of CCTV in public areas and entrances is highly recommended.
Semi-housing Standard (Enforced in 2010)	Facilities inside the room should only permit one person; guests should only be allowed in the lounge. The room should be provided with basic computer/laptop facilities. Bathroom facilities are recommended to be outside the room (shared). No eating (except snacks) should be allowed inside the room. Lounge or kitchen should accommodate this activity. Parking space should not be provided.

Table 2. Summary of spatial characteristics of micro-houses around the world.

Category	Feature	Case	Country
Micro Scale: Room Condition	Foldable storage and desk Minimalist, white-based interior Abundance of natural light No kitchen in the room, only bed and small bathroom installed	Pods Apartment	Japan
	Storage spaces attached to almost the entire wall Loft model (bed in a mezzanine floor) Size: 14 m^2	Micro-Apartment	Poland
	Storage under the bed Maximizing the wall to be an opened closet Maximizing natural light	Micro-Flat	New York City, USA
	Utilization of sofa bed Foldable chairs	Compact Apartment	Paris, France
Meso Scale: Building and Shared Facilities	Rooftop access as lounge for the residents to socialize	Micro-Flat	New York City, USA
	Availability of a delivery room to store arrived packages and mail on the first floor near the entrance	Compact Apartment	Paris, France
	Emphasis on sharing facilities and public area Importance of lounge	Co-Housing	Korea
	Availability of a shared kitchen, lounge, and reading room	Micro Studios	Seattle, USA
Macro Scale: Location	Located in downtown areas	Micro-Apartment	Poland
	Located in the busiest region of Paris	Compact Apartment	Paris, France
	Walking distance to a subway station and other important urban amenities	SEDU (Small Efficiency Dwelling Unit)	Seattle, USA

Figure 3. Map of Seoul and the three main locations for this study.

Figure 4. Path model of the study.

Table 3. Validity and reliability measures for the current living environment evaluation.

Indicators	Outer loading	AVE	Cronbach’s alpha
X1A: Proximity to school or workplace The goshiwon is located near my school/office.	0.642	0.760	0.618
X1C: (Perceived) Safety The goshiwon is located in a crime-safe area.	0.909
X2A: Shared Facilities The shared facilities such as the kitchen and laundry machine of the goshiwon are clean and have enough capacity for all the tenants.	0.726	0.585	0.645
X2B: Other facilities in the building The other facilities in the building do not disturb daily life in my goshiwon.	0.800
X2C: Resident Type The other residents do not disturb daily life in my goshiwon.	0.767
X3A: Room Size The room is in an appropriate size that allows me to perform daily activities comfortably.	0.812	0.773	0.901
X3B: Window The room has a window with an appropriate size that can be opened.	0.874
X3C: Storage The room has enough storage to keep all my belongings.	0.909
X3D: Furniture The furniture in the room allows me to perform basic daily activities.	0.917
Y1: Comfort The goshiwon offers appropriate living facilities for me to live comfortably.	0.933	0.869	0.849
Y2: Long-term stay I can tolerate long-term occupancy (more than a year) with the current condition of my goshiwon.	0.930

Figure 5. PLS algorithm and bootstrapping analysis result for the current livability of goshiwons. *p < 0.05 †0.05 < p < 1.

Table 4. Tenants’ perceptions of the current living environment of the goshiwons.

Occupation	Content
Students	The location of goshiwons is their main advantage because of their close proximity to the school.
	The size of the shared facilities is not proportional to the number of tenants. Tenants often have to wait to use the facilities, such as the laundry machine.
	Main reason to choose goshiwons is to save money for other entertainment purposes, such as travelling and hanging out with friends in expensive cafes.
	Second main advantage of goshiwons is the free rice, instant noodles, and kimchi that are often provided in goshiwons.
	Many goshiwons are located in a mixed-use building where other facilities such as restaurants and bars exist. Some respondents complained about some disturbance from those facilities.
Office workers	The location of goshiwons is the main advantage of goshiwons because of its close proximity to the workplace.
	The soundproofing of the room is really bad.
	Not enough natural light, which can cause depression.
	Main reason to choose goshiwons is to save money to move to a bigger place (apartment or one-room) of better quality.
	The biggest advantage of goshiwons is that the tenants do not have to pay for utility bills.
	Restaurant is the most disturbing facility to have in the same building as goshiwons. Besides the noise, the smell of the food from the kitchen is really disturbing the tenants.
Labor workers and the goshiwon manager	The main advantage of a goshiwon is that it is cheap, and no key money or deposit is required.
	There is a tendency to maximize all benefits of goshiwons, such as bringing the free meals to the workplace.
	Loneliness is the main issue due to the lack of meaningful interaction with other tenants.
	The room can be really depressing due to its small size and lack of natural light.
	Goshiwons with labor workers as their tenants usually are less attractive compared to those with only students or office workers as the tenants.

Table 5. Validity and reliability measures for evaluation of future improvements.

Indicators	Outer loading	AVE	Cronbach’s alpha
X1A: Proximity to school or workplace The convenience of goshiwon would be improved if it were located closer to my school/workplace.	0.902	0.797	0.873
X1B: Proximity to urban amenities The convenience of goshiwon would be improved if it was located closer to various urban amenities.	0.906
X1C: (Perceived) Safety Safer environment will make goshiwon better as a living space	0.870
X2A: Shared Facilities The comfort of goshiwon would be improved if the shared facilities were cleaner and sufficient for all tenants.	0.708	0.557	0.606
X2B: Other facilities in the building Other facilities in the building should never disturb the life of the goshiwon residents.	0.878
X2C: Resident Type It would be nicer if the tenants of the goshiwons were from the same background.	0.631
X3A: Room Size Goshiwons should have a minimum size that allows the tenants to perform daily activities comfortably.	0.722	0.548	0.685
X3B: Window The room should have an appropriate and functional window.	0.686
X3C: Storage The comfort of goshiwons would be improved if there were enough storage and if the storage were designed to create more space for the room (e.g., installing wall storage, putting storage under the bed, etc.).	0.808
Y1: Comfort With all the improvements mentioned above, goshiwons would be more comfortable to live in.	0.813	0.607	0.654
Y2: Long-term stay With all the improvements mentioned before, I am interested in staying in a goshiwon long term (more than a year).	0.744

Figure 6. PLS algorithm and bootstrapping analysis result for the future improvements. *p < 0.05 †0.05 < p < 1.

Table 6. Tenants’ suggestions for the future development of goshiwons.

Occupation		Content
Students	Suggested future development	Location should not be in close proximity to nightclubs, pubs, or any other drinking establishments for safety reasons.
		Even if it is small, a window is a must.
		There should be a shared reading room or study room.
	Occupancy	Improvements may increase interest in staying in goshiwons, but not significantly.
Office workers	Suggested future development	Air circulation needs to be fixed by installing a window of proper size.
		There should be a minimum standard of goshiwons.
		The entrance of goshiwons needs to be secure (installing CCTV, passcode, etc.).
		More storage space in the room is needed.
		Location should not be around businesses that produce excess noise, such as bars or pubs.
	Occupancy	Okay for now, but once money is not a problem, staying in goshiwons is not preferable even with the improvements.
Labor worker and the goshiwon manager	Suggested Future development	Offer standardized rooms that will ensure the health and hygiene of the room.
		Limit the number of rooms to prevent fire accidents.
		Provide a shared living room as a place for the tenants to interact.
		Private toilets are believed to improve hygiene and help prevent infectious disease.
	Occupancy	Money is the biggest issue in moving out from goshiwons.
		It is even difficult to move to public housing because of the money.
		Even with the improvements, goshiwons are still not preferred if money is not the problem.