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Abstract
This paper is based on the study of a distinct insular region in Greece: Cyclades Prefecture with reference to also to the broader Periphery of the Southern Aegean. It elaborates on the issue of island innovation systems and the role of actions driven by higher education institutions (HEIs) in knowledge infrastructure (KI) and capacity building (CB). The paper argues that an exceedingly high number of HEI research actions tend to develop with “relative autonomy” from local expertise, networks and knowledge patterns embedded in the insular setting. In addition, these actions are conditioned by the EU policy doctrine, the dominant central state perception of innovation policies and the adverse pattern of HEI development in the national territory. Its geographically scattered composition and scarcities in scientific specializations and research fields make the sole regional HEI feeble in its ability to assume a leading role in fostering KI and CB processes. From this context, a number of factors and obstacles militate against a knowledge area-wide integrated strategy, deriving from: (a) the local socio-economic setting; (b) the proliferation of HEI actions; and (c) the institutional-governance system. In parallel to such obstacles, however, there are indications of potential conditions of change emanating from the positive role of some HEIs actions, the relatively active presence of regional HEIs, the growth trends of the insular economy, the making of new niches and networks, the presence of international institutions and, above all, the building of an atmosphere of trust between local communities and HEIs.
Notes
1. In the Triple Helix Model the innovative role of the HEIs is seen in interplay with two other spheres: industry and government. Each sphere, besides performing its conventional functions in a local economy, gradually assumes an intermixed or joint role, shaping three main forms of evolution: “In Triple Helix I the three spheres are defined institutionally (university, industry and government). Interaction across otherwise defended boundaries is mediated by mechanisms such as industrial liaison, technology transfer and contract offices. In Triple Helix II the helices are defined as different communication systems consisting of the operation of markets, technological innovations and control at the interfaces. The interfaces among these different functions operate in a distributed mode, and produce potentially new forms of communication, as in a sustained technology transfer interface or patent legislation. In Triple Helix III the institutional spheres of university, industry and government, in addition to performing their traditional functions, each assume the role of the others, with universities creating an industrial penumbra, or performing a quasi-governmental role as a regional or local innovation organizer” (Leydesdorff and Etzkowitz Citation1998, p. 3).
2. At a sub-peripheral level, Cyclades Prefecture together with the Prefecture of Dodekanese forms the broader administrative entity of the Periphery of the the Southern Aegean; following a very recent administrative reform – as will be mentioned below – the Periphery forms the broader democratically elected insitution.
3. EPET I (Operational Programme for the Research and Technology, 1990) and STRIDE (1992).
4. EPET II: R&D in industrial research and technology transfer, research facilities’ funding and restructuring, and human capital training. STRIDE also provided for the financing of joint ventures between research institutions and enterprise organizations. Furthermore EPEAEK (Education and Vocational Training) aimed at promoting academic research activity. Two additional programs were also adopted: (a) PABE (Industrial Research Development Programme), including actual industrial research; and (b) PENED (Enhancement of Manpower Research).
5. The OP “Comp” includes nine axes of action. Two of them concern the “Promotion of Excellence in Technological Development and Research”, and “Technological Innovation and Research”: PRAXE – exploitation of research results, enhancing the implementation of “spin-off” companies; ELEFTHO – creation of science-technology parks and incubators; PAVET – development of industrial research and technology in existing enterprises and PAVET-NE in new enterprises; HERON – support of research staff employment in enterprises; PENED: support of researchers – training young researchers; expanding human capital in research activities; ENTER – integration of foreign researchers and integrating them in the national research system; ERA – European Union Framework Programme and Development of the European Research Area etc. Within the third CSF period, the EPEAEK program has been re-launched, addressed to HEI research activities and especially for strengthening opportunities for knowledge development, promotion of innovative ideas and entrepreneurship among stakeholders. CSF Management Organization Unit, 5th Monitoring Committee file, CSF Dossier.
6. Renewable energy, food–aquaculture, knowledge-intensive culture and tourism, sea transport, health–biomedicine–diagnostic and therapeutic methods, natural environment, built environment and safety, business organization, training, e-learning, e-business.
7. Law 2919/2001 “Connecting Research and Technology with Production and other regulations”. Government Gazette 128/15-6-2001. Article 10, "Supporting scientific research”; Law 2992/2002, “Measures to support the capital market and the development of competitiveness and other regulations”. Government Gazette 54/20-3-2001.
8. Affecting especially the island of Syros and mainly hitting the – until then – powerful manufacturing sector (textiles and shipbuilding), making 1500 people redundant (30% of the workforce).
9. Which is lower than the average density for Greece (83 inhabitants/km2).
10. The Periphery of the Southern Aegean is ranked second in GDP per capita in the country.
11. The Neorio Shipyards in Syros, extraction industry in Milos, marble extraction in Naxos and Paros, etc.
12. In the making of R&D expenditure trends, the private sector had the lowest contribution (25% of the total), while the highest (75%) came from public institutions (HEIs and public research centers).
13. In the Cyclades, of 5332 inhabitants with an HEI degree, 4991 (93.6%) have a university degree, 238 (4.5%) have a postgraduate degree and only 103 (1.9%) a PhD (the relevant figures for Greece are respectively 91.1, 6 and 2.9%).
14. According to the OBI (Industrial Property Organization): (a) a patent is a title of protection valid for 20 years. It is granted for inventions which involve an inventive step and are capable of industrial application. (b) The Utility Model Certificate is a title of protection valid for seven years. It is granted for three-dimensional objects having a predetermined shape and form and providing a solution to a technical problem. (c) An industrial design (which has not been examined here) is an externally visible image of all or part of an industrial or handicraft product, which image results from its specific features such as shape, outline and colour. The conditions for protecting an industrial design are also its novelty and individual character.
15. Some indicative activities according to the shipyards information office refer to: (a) continuous vocational training for unemployed; (b) training of workers and employees of the shipyards; (c) EU programs and initiatives. Community Initiative Equal: “Navigator: Management of Change in the Shipbuilding Sector Through the Development of Human Force” (2005–2008). Community Initiative Equal: “NEORION II – Enhancing Competitiveness and Securing Employment in the Shipbuilding Industry” (2002–2005). Community Initiative Adapt: “NEORION – Promotion of Employment of the Ship-repairing Sector through the Specialisation of Human Resources” (1998–2000). Community Initiative Now: “LITO – Development of Nursery Station Services in an Insular Area” (1997–2000). Leonardo Da Vinci: “EQUADIL – Development of Main Professional Skills of Employees in Manufacture with the use of Tele-education and Electronic Equipment” (1998–). EU Project Leonardo Da Vinci: “Neorion – Insuring of Occupation in the Ship-repairing sector” (1997–1999). IT Certification, etc.
16. The Union of Agricultural Cooperatives of Paros (established in 1929) has managed to extend its activities in various fields such as: (a) financing, (b) supply provision, (c) wine production, (d) dairy products production, (e) bottling, (d) retail sales and (e) commercialization. It also launched the initiative “Programme for the Reconstitution of the Wine Sector” in 1996, in collaboration with the “Institute for the Protection of Plants, Vineyards and Wine” (National Foundation of Agricultural Research) and the Technological Educational Institution of Crete (Union of Agricultural Cooperatives of Paros Citation2004). See also Avgelis et al. (Citation2002).
17. More specifically the lithology of Milos consists of a vast number of industrial minerals such as: betonite, perlite, kaolin, baryte, sulfur, alounite, pouzzolane, natural zeolites, Ka-feldspars, pylicate, epithermal gold and geo-thermal resources. The actual area surface of extraction sites covers about 9% (14 square km) of the island.
18. COHERA: Universities as Knowledge Drivers in Less Favoured Regions, Regions of Knowledge-European Research Area, EU Research Programme. Other than the Greek case, the program involved the comparative analysis of Wales (UK) and Centro (Portugal).
19. The institutions taken into consideration in the research program and involved at the introductory stage in the elaboration of their aggregate data were: the Ministry of Development – General Secretariat for Research and Technology, the Organization of Industrial Property, the (former) Ministry of the Aegean, CORDIS, the University of the Aegean, the University of Thessaly, Kapodistrian University of Athens, National Technical University of Athens, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Pantion University, the Agricultural University of Athens, EKKE (National Centre for Social Research), CRES (Centre for Renewable Energy Sources), NOA (National Observatory of Athens), NHRF (National Hellenic Research Foundation), the Union of Agricultural Cooperatives of Santorini, the Union of Agricultural Cooperatives of Paros, the Union of Agricultural Cooperatives of Naxos, the Prefecture of the Cyclades, the Neorion Shipyards SA, S&B Industrial Minerals SA (Milos).
20. “The Cyclades Regional Programme” defines three strategic goals and respective objectives: Strategic Goal A – Local Economy; Objective A1 – SME and Commerce Support (Incubator, Consultancy, Telematics System); Objective A2 – Primary Sector Support (New Technologies Agricultural Incubators, Biological Products); Objective A3 – Tourist Sector Support (Marketing, Information Network, Marine and Cultural Tourism); Objective A4 – Transportation and Intra-regional Trade Development; Objective A5 – Development of Supra-local Services; Strategic Goal B – Quality of Life; Objective B1 – Improvement and Development of Infrastructure; Objective B2 – Improvement and Development of Social Infrastructure; Objective B3 – Planning Policy and Housing Improvement (Urban-regional Plans, Land-use Mapping); Objective B4 – Social Support (Employment Support Center, Labor Market Observatory); Strategic Goal C – Built and Natural Heritage Protection; Objective C1 – Natural Heritage (Sea Pollution, Waste Recycling); Objective C2: Built Heritage Protection (Archaeological Sites, Historic Centers, Listed Buildings).
21. The most active Greek HEIs appear to include: University of the Aegean, Kapodistrian University of Athens, National Technical University of Athens, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Pantion University, the Agricultural University of Athens.
22. From a total of 78 research programs, about 54 relied directly on EU funding.
23. A strong role in this respect is portrayed by the corporate mineral extraction firm LDK Ltd, and the Silver & Barytini Company and the Neorio Shipyards in the islands of Milos and Syros, respectively.
24. Public institutions such as Centre for Renewable Energy Sources, the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, the National Centre for Social Research and the Foundation for Research and Technology of Crete (ITE).
25. More specifically, “Impetys Systems & Telecommunications SA” coordinated (in collaboration with other national, regional and European partners) a project concerning marine oil-spill pollution and protection. A European Informatics and Mathematics Research Consortium (with the participation of the Foundation for Research and Technology of Crete) has carried out a research program focusing on the creation of an open collaborative e-print archive of the school communities in the Aegean. Finally, a group of Greek and German firms has implemented a program aiming to produce an innovative advanced technologies system for the protection of archaeological sites.
26. Indicative of the intense presence of international institutions in the various Cycladic localities is the research program carried out by the University of Cincinnati for the municipality of Santorini concerning physical planning issues (University of Cincinnati, Municipality of Santorini, Citation2004).
27. Research action carried out by the Institute de Physique de Globe of Paris and Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine (UK), in collaboration with the Universities of Bayreuth (Germany) and of Bristol (UK).
28. Central Research Laboratories plc – UK (with the collaboration of HEIs and research centers from the UK, France, Spain and Denmark).
29. Coordinated by the RISO National Laboratory for Sustainable Energy – Technical University of Denmark.
30. It appears that large enterprises have far higher potential for innovative collaborations with other institutions and HEIs, and better access to EU programs and initiatives (ESPRIT, PAVE, PEPER, LIFE, ADAPT, EQUAL). By contrast, SMEs remain virtually cut off from such prospects.