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Abstract
This article describes how Israeli parliamentarians, political parties and candidates, as well as audiences use the Internet. Utilizing empirical data, the article analyzes the use of online media by candidates and incumbents and reviews the diverse applications they employ.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the editors and reviewers as well as Sam Lehman-Wilzig, Ruvi Ziegler and Varda Samuels for their constructive and useful comments.
Notes
1. Israel Internet Usage and Marketing Report, Internet World Stats: Usage and Population Statistics, http://www.internetworldstats.com/me/il.htm.
2. Maayan Cohen, “TIM Survey: Israel's Number of Internet Users – 4.5 Million; 16% Surf through Mobile Phones,” 140 – Internet, Media, Technology, July 7, 2010 [Hebrew], http://www.140.co.il/blog/2010/07/07/11699.
3. Azi Lev-On, “Campaigning Online: Use of the Internet by Parties, Candidates and Voters in National and Local Elections in Israel.” Policy and Internet 3, no. 1 (2011): http://www.psocommons.org/policyandinternet/vol3/iss1/art6/.
4. Among the few studies: Eytan Gilboa and Yaron Katz, “The Media Campaign: The Shift to Alternative Media,” Israel Affairs 7, no. 2 (2001): 223–44; Sam Lehman-Wilzig, “Worth an Agora? 2003 E-lection Party Sites and Public Discourse,” Israel Affairs 10, no. 4 (2004): 242–62; Nir Atmor, “The Internet Race: Parties and the Online Campaign in the 2006 Elections,” in The Elections in Israel 2006, ed. Asher Arian and Michal Shamir (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2008), 295–322 [also in Hebrew]; Nir Atmor and Assaf Siani, “Parties' Websites in 2009 Elections: A Comparative Look,” in Connected: Politics, Technology and Society in Israel, ed. Erez Cohen and Azi Lev-On (Tel Aviv: Israeli Political Science Association, forthcoming) [Hebrew]; Dan Caspi and Elinor Lev, “Premature Americanization: New Media in the 18th Knesset General Election Campaign,” Kesher 39 (Fall 2009): 6–16 [Hebrew].
5. Carmel L. Vaisman, “Blogs as Public Property Media: Defining the Roles and Assessing the Influence of Political Blogging in Israel,” in International Blogging: Identity, Politics and Networked Publics, ed. Adrian Russell and Nabil Echchaibi (New York: Peter Lang, 2009), 111–32; Sharon Haleva-Amir, “Present – Absentees: MKs Usage of Personal Internet Tools,” in Connected: Politics, Technology and Society in Israel, ed. Cohen and Lev-On.
6. Examples of the strong barriers to entering the traditional media and the tight controls over them include geographic monopolies/dependence, compliance with government regulations and licensing requirements, the need for equipment, infrastructure, broadcasting capabilities, and the high costs of production and distribution.
7. See Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams, Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything (New York: Penguin Group, 2006); Duncan Riley, “The Rise of the Prosumer,” TechCrunch, June 15, 2007, http://techcrunch.com/2007/06/15/the-rise-of-the-prosumer/; Luminita Giurgiu and Ghita Barsan, “The Prosumer – Core and Consequence of the Web 2.o Era,” Journal of Social Informatics 5, no. 9 (2008): 53–9, http://www.ris.uvt.ro/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/giurgiubirsan.pdf; Claudia K. Grinnell, “From Consumer to Prosumer to Produser: Who Keeps Shifting My Paradigm? (We Do!),” Public Culture, 21, no. 3 (Fall 2009), http://publicculture.org/articles/view/21/3/from-consumer-to-prosumer-to-produser-who-keeps-shifting-my-paradigm-we-do.
8. See Kay Lehman Schlozman, Sidney Verba, and Henry E. Brady, “Weapon of the Strong? Participatory Inequality and the Internet,” Perspectives on Politics 8, no. 2 (2010): 487–509.
9. I would like to thank Dr. Mike Dahan for this important piece of information.
10. Between 1996 and 2001, three electoral campaigns included the direct election of the prime minister by the entire electorate. This electoral reform (which was annulled in 2003) created a double voting system: two votes were cast, one for the prime minister and another one for the party.
11. Ehud Barak, Binyamin Netanyahu, Isaac Mordechai and Binyamin Ze'ev Begin: Gilboa and Katz, “The Media Campaign: The Shift to Alternative Media,” 240.
12. One Israel, Likud, The Center Party, Democratic Front for Peace and Equality (Hadash), Meretz – Democratic Israel, The Third way and Israel Green Party (HaYerukim): Ehud Barak, Binyamin Netanyahu, Isaac Mordechai and Binyamin Ze'ev Begin: Gilboa and Katz, “The Media Campaign: The Shift to Alternative Media,” 240 lists running in the 1999 Knesset Elections, http://www.knesset.gov.il/elections/eindex.html.
13. Ehud Barak, Binyamin Netanyahu, Isaac Mordechai and Binyamin Ze'ev Begin: Gilboa and Katz, “The Media Campaign: The Shift to Alternative Media,” 240
14. Lehman-Wilzig, “Worth an Agora?,” 246.
15. Lehman-Wilzig, “Worth an Agora?,”, 257; Viviane Serfaty, “Web Campaigns: Popular Culture and Politics in the U.S. and French Presidential Elections,” Culture, Language and Representation 8 (2010): 123.
16. Atmor, “The Internet Race,” 295.
17. Atmor, “The Internet Race,”, 306–7.
18. Gili Soffer, “Political Discourse, Internet Discourse: Does the Internet Really Affect Electoral Campaign,” GiliSoffer.com (2006), http://gilisoffer.com/ellections2006B.html.
19. Gili Soffer, “Political Discourse, Internet Discourse: Does the Internet Really Affect Electoral Campaign,” GiliSoffer.com (2006), http://gilisoffer.com/ellections2006B.html
20. Atmor, “The Internet Race,” 306–7.
21. Atmor, “The Internet Race,”, 303.
22. Atmor, “The Internet Race,”, 303.
23. Sharon Rofe-Ofir and Ilan Marciano, “Beinish Disqualified Shinuy's ‘Ultra Religious’ Clip,” Ynet, March 8, 2006, Politics section [Hebrew], http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3225502,00.html.
24. Aviram Zino, “High Court of Justice on Shinuy's Electoral Clip: Like an Anti-Semitic Propaganda,” Ynet, June 28, 2006, Politics section [Hebrew], http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3268731,00.html.
25. Atmor, “The Internet Race,” 303; Mazal Mualem, “At Cinema City, Coming Attractions for 2006 Elections,” Haaretz, February 14, 2006, Elections section, http://www.haaretz.com/news/elections/at-cinema-city-coming-attractions-for-2006-election-1.180115.
26. Atmor, “The Internet Race,” 303–5.
27. Atmor, “The Internet Race,”, 313–14.
28. Atmor, “The Internet Race,”, 311; Keren Argaman and Sagit Fastman, “The Political Desert,” NRG, February 5, 2006, Main section [Hebrew], http://www.nrg.co.il/online/1/ART1/043/401.html.
29. For a review of the widespread presence of paid bloggers and comment writers in the online political arena as an integral part of the 2006 electoral campaign, see Atara Frenkel-Faran and Sam Lehman-Wilzig, “The Media in the 2006 Israeli Elections: Who's Manufacturing Consent? Framing the Spin-Doctors,” Israel Affairs 13, no. 2 (2007): 418–42.
30. Atmor, “The Internet Race,” 317–18.
31. Mazal Mualem, Roni Zinger, and Jacky Huri, “On-Line Elections: Campaigns Migrate Online,” Haaretz, November 24, 2008, Captain Internet section [Hebrew], http://www.haaretz.co.il/captain/spages/1040480.html.
32. Mazal Mualem, Roni Zinger, and Jacky Huri, “On-Line Elections: Campaigns Migrate Online,” Haaretz, November 24, 2008, Captain Internet section [Hebrew], http://www.haaretz.co.il/captain/spages/1040480.html
33. Karine Barzilai-Nahon, “The Future of Online Politics: What Our Elected Representatives Know?,” Ynet, July 22, 2009, Internet section [Hebrew], http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3750548,00.html; Lev-On, “Campaigning Online.”
34. Clair Cain Miller, “How Obama's Internet Campaign Changed Politics,” New York Times, November 7, 2008, Bits Blog section, http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/11/07/how-obamas-internet-campaign-changed-politics/.
35. Ethan Bronner and Noam Cohen, “Israeli Candidate Borrows A (Web) Page From Obama,” New York Times, November 14, 2008, Middle East section, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/15/world/middleeast/15bibi.html; Ido Keinan, “Obama and Netanyahu's Websites,” Room 404 – Ido Keinan's Blog, November 11, 2008 [Hebrew], http://www.room404.net/?p = 15299; Noa Pereg, “Everybody Wants to be Obama: What Do the Big Parties Do In Order to Reach Out to the Voter Through the Internet?,” Globes, December 16, 2008, Market Share and Consumption section [Hebrew], http://www.globes.co.il/news/article.aspx?did = 1000407627&fid = 821; Aviv Eilon, “Does the Netanyahu Website Breach Copyrights? Commentary,” Ynet, November 17, 2008, Internet section [Hebrew], http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3624168,00.html.
36. Lev-On, “Campaigning Online.”
37. Barzilai-Nahon, “The Future of Online Politics”; Haleva-Amir, “Present – Absentees.”
38. Pinchas Wolf, “Primaries in ‘Israel Hazaka’: Voting through the Internet,” Walla! News, December 10, 2008 [Hebrew], http://news.walla.co.il/?w = /1/1395335; News 2, “Israel is Stronger Over the Internet,” December 10, 2008 [Hebrew], http://www.mako.co.il/news-elections-2009/news/Article-f4456d260922e11004.htm.
39. Shelly Paz, “Israel Hazaka Gets On-Line Voting Right for the First Time,” Jerusalem Post, November 12, 2008, http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article.aspx?id = 123970.
40. Wolf, “Primaries in ‘Israel Hazaka’.”
41. Nadav Shragai, “The Jewish Home Party Received its Name from the Users,” Haaretz, November 24, 2008, Captain Internet section [Hebrew] (No longer available online).
42. Nir Atmor, “18th Knesset Elections Online Campaign: A Moment before the Elections,” The Israeli Democratic Institute, February 2, 2009 [Hebrew], http://www.idi.org.il/breakingnews/pages/breaking_the_news_88.aspx.
43. Lev-On, “Campaigning Online.”
44. Atmor, “18th Knesset Elections Online Campaign.”
45. Twitter use was less frequent and underutilized. One incident was related to a fictitious Twitter account under the name of Ehud Barak. Didi Hanoch, “The Fictitious Twitter of Barak,” Walla!, December 8, 2008, Tech section [Hebrew], http://tech.walla.co.il/?w = /4007/1393707.
46. Martin P. Wattenberg, The Rise of Candidate-Centred Politics: Presidential Elections of the 1980s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995); Orit Galili-Zucker, Tele-Politicians: New Political Leadership in the West and in Israel (Tel Aviv: Ramot and Tel Aviv University, 2004) [Hebrew]; Gideon Rahat and Tamir Sheafer, “The Personalization(s) of Politics: Israel, 1949–2003,” Political Communication, 24, no. 1 (2007): 65–80. See also Lior Livak, Azi Lev-On, and Gideon Doron, “Online Political Personalization in Israel” (in this volume).
47. Haleva-Amir, “Present – Absentees.”
48. Such as Daniel Ben-Simon, Daniel Hershkowitz, Nachman Shai, Orit Zuaretz, Yariv Levin, Danni Danon, Tzipi Hotoveli, Zeevik Bielski, Moshe Mutz Matalon, Michael Ben-Ari, and Nitzan Horowitz.
49. Such as Einat Wilf, Uri Neeman, Galia Albin, Dr. Yechiel Shabi, Eli Avidar, Keren Barak, Gila Waxman, Oren Tokatly, Sagiv Assulin, Ophir Miller, Omer Sela, Moshe Feiglin, Isaac Regev, and Tzalli Reshef.
50. Atmor and Siani, “Parties' Websites in 2009 Elections: A Comparative Look”; Haleva-Amir, “Present – Absentees.”
51. Rafi Mann, “The Digital Candidate,” The Seventh Eye, June 8, 2008, ‘The International Eye’ section [Hebrew], http://www.the7eye.org.il/InternationalEye/Pages/080062008_mann_obama's_victory.aspx.
52. Yuval Dror, “Surfing on Imagination's Wings,” The Seventh Eye, November 30, 2008, The Daily Column [Hebrew], http://www.the7eye.org.il/DailyColumn/Pages/301108_The_misuse_of_the_net_by_eager_politicians.aspx.
53. Haleva-Amir, “Present – Absentees.”
54. Haleva-Amir, “Present – Absentees.”
55. Lev-On, “Campaigning Online.”
56. http://www.bibiblof.com/; the site is no longer available online.
57. Pinchas Wolf, “Kadima Launched a New Website: ‘Bibi Bluff,’” Walla!, December 4, 2008, News section [Hebrew], http://news.walla.co.il/?w = /7/1391357.
58. http://zipi007.co.il. Another anti Kadima website was established under the name of No Kadima, http://www.nokadima.mysite.xo.il. These sites are no longer available online.
59. See this thread [Hebrew]: http://agenda.nana10.co.il/37/forum/161661/. Yoni Goldblat-Levav, who is mentioned in the thread and at the bottom of the website as its initiator, was Binyamin Netanyahu's website administrator in 2007: Yoni Goldblat-Levav, “Politics Dot Com,” News 1, May 13, 2007 [Hebrew], http://www.news1.co.il/Archive/003-D-22073-00.html?tag = 10-25-29].
60. Elections 2009 – Opinion Polling, Netvision Institute for Internet Studies and Smith Institute [Hebrew], http://www.niis.tau.ac.il/admin/media/document/%202009
.ppt].
61. Elections 2009 – Opinion Polling, Netvision Institute for Internet Studies and Smith Institute (Hebrew), http://www.niis.tau.ac.il/admin/media/document/???%202009.ppt]
62. Maayan Cohen, “The Elections Moved to the Internet, the Voters did not,” The Marker, January 15, 2009, Advertising and Media section [Hebrew], http://www.themarker.com/tmc/article.jhtml?log = tag&ElementId = skira20090115_1055638.
63. Maayan Cohen, “The Elections Moved to the Internet, the Voters did not,” The Marker, January 15, 2009, Advertising and Media section [Hebrew], http://www.themarker.com/tmc/article.jhtml?log = tag&ElementId = skira20090115_1055638
64. Maayan Cohen, “The Elections Moved to the Internet, the Voters did not,” The Marker, January 15, 2009, Advertising and Media section [Hebrew], http://www.themarker.com/tmc/article.jhtml?log = tag&ElementId = skira20090115_1055638
65. Guy Grimland, “The Blogosphere Tends to the Left,” The Marker, February 4, 2009, IT-Computerworld section [Hebrew], http://it.themarker.com/tmit/article/5720; Lisa Goldman, “If Israeli Bloggers were Representative of the Mainstream…,” The Guardian, February 3, 2009, World News section, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/blog/2009/feb/03/israel-election-bloggers.
66. Ori Katzir, “The 18th Knesset Elections: The Bloggers' Choice (Final Results),” Plato: Ori Katzir's Blog, February 10, 2009 [Hebrew], http://www.aplaton.co.il/story_513.
67. Doron Shiner, “How They Voted: See Israel Election Results by City/Sector,” Haaretz, February 11, 2009, News section, http://www.haaretz.com/news/how-they-voted-see-israel-election-results-by-city-sector-1.269923; Official Results [Hebrew], http://www.knesset.gov.il/description/heb/heb_mimshal_res18.htm.
68. See for example two posts by Tagit in her blog: “A Blog for Each Politician,” Aberrant, November 18, 2008 [Hebrew], http://israblog.nana10.co.il/blogread.asp?blog = 454677&blogcode = 10186962; “Politics on the Web”, Aberrant, December 1, 2008 [Hebrew], http://israblog.nana10.co.il/blogread.asp?blog = 454677&blogcode = 10238729.
69. Nir Atmor, “Parties Websites in the 2009 Elections Campaign: Characteristics and Trends,” July 6, 2009, Personal Copy (Forthcoming): 18–20.
70. Haleva-Amir, “Present – Absentees.”
71. Haleva-Amir, “Present – Absentees.”
73. Labor Party Website: http://www.havoda.org.il/ (last visited, December 23, 2010).
74. Amanda Lenhart, “Adults and Social Networking Websites,” Pew Internet and American Life Project (2009), http://www.pewInternet.org/Reports/2009/Adults-and-Social-Network-Websites.aspx.
75. Amanda Lenhart et al., “Teens and Social Media,” Pew Internet and American Life Project (2007), http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2007/Teens-and-Social-Media.aspx.
77. Yalla Kadima Editorial, “Even MK Yoel Hasson Has a Facebook Profile,” Yalla Kadima, November 18, 2007 [Hebrew], http://www.yallakadima.co.il/article.asp?item_id = 4871 (emphasis added).
78. Binyamin Netanyahu's Facebook profile was removed from the web only to be replaced by a formal ‘The Prime Minister of Israel’ account, which is equivalent to the formal ‘White House’ profile. Ironically, it weakened his social web presence, because this profile does not try to interest or engage the users. It just delivers information. Ehud Keinan, “The Prime Minister is Joining YouTube and Twitter,” Ynet, August 30, 2010, Internet section [Hebrew], http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/1,7340,L-3946278,00.html; Gal Mor, “Office of the Prime Minister of Israel in Facebook: What Netanyahu Does Not Tell Us,” Holes in the Net, August 31, 2010 [Hebrew], http://www.holesinthenet.co.il/archives/12407.
79. Channel 2 News, “Knesset Members were Instructed to Join Facebook; MK Mozes: ‘What is this?’,” Globes, March 11, 2010, Hi-Tech, Communication and Internet section [Hebrew], http://www.globes.co.il/news/article.aspx?did = 1000545872&fromMador = 594&fromErechMusafHP.
81. Binyamin Netanyahu, “The Blog: The Internet's Democratic Power,”(December 7, 2006 [Hebrew], http://web.archive.org/web/20070106043915/www.netanyahu.org.il/?cat = 54&article = 3564875.
82. Zvi Avisar, “Bibi's Blog: Where He Is Right and Where He Is Not,” June 4, 2007 [Hebrew], http://www.yallakadima.co.il/article.asp?item_id = 3392.
83. Carmel L. Vaisman, “Blogs as Public Property Media: Defining the Roles and Assessing the Influence of Political Blogging in Israel,” in International Blogging, ed. Russell and Echchaibi, 129.
85. These figures overlap because four MKs (18%) have both a blog on their website and a blog on a designated blogging platform such as Blogger, Tapuz blogs etc.
86. Ayala Tzoref, “The Leader has Twitted his Message: Heads of States are Discovering Twitter,” The Marker, September 3, 2010, IT – Computerworld section [Hebrew], http://it.themarker.com/tmit/article/12162.
87. MKs have a Twitter account; another MK has a Snooz account (Israeli microblogging website, http://www.tapuz.co.il/snooz/).
88. Not active for at least four months.
89. To avoid biased statistics, dormant accounts were excluded from the database.
91. http://www.facebook.com/pages/rwz-lknst-dbrw-m-hhkym-bpyysbwq/361038228813?v = info – Information tab [Hebrew].
93. http://oknesset.org/.
97. Sharon Haleva-Amir, “‘This site's aim is to maintain a useful, stable, ongoing connection with the public’: On the Gap between Texts and Features in Israeli MPs' Personal Websites” (paper in progress).