Does Fathers’ Care Spill Over? Evaluating Reforms in the Swedish Parental Leave Program

Figures & data

Table 1 Descriptive statistics

	1995 reform		2002 reform
	Dec 1994	Jan 1995	Dec 2001	Jan 2002
Mean age of mother	29.5	29.4	30.8	30.7
	(0.06)	(0.06)	(0.07)	(0.07)
Mean age of father	32.2	32.1	33.4	33.3
	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.09)	(0.09)
Mother is Swedish	0.89	0.89	0.85	0.86
born	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Father is Swedish	0.88	0.89	0.85**	0.86**
born	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Birth order: First	0.39	0.38	0.46**	0.44**
	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Birth order: Second	0.37**	0.40**	0.34***	0.37***
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Birth order: Third+	0.23	0.22	0.21	0.19
	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.006)	(0.005)
Mean income of	125.0	124.7	187.4	189.8
mother (1,000 SEK)	(0.73)	(0.73)	(1.42)	(1.42)
Mean income of	172.5	173.0	263.7	266.8
father (1,000 SEK)	(0.90)	(0.90)	(2.15)	(2.15)
Birth in a large city	0.32	0.31	0.36	0.36
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Birth in a large town	0.33	0.33	0.33	0.33
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.006)
Birth elsewhere in Sweden	0.35	0.36	0.32	0.31
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.006)
Mother has primary	0.15	0.14	0.11	0.10
education	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.004)
Mother has secondary	0.58	0.58	0.51	0.52
education	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Mother has tertiary	0.28	0.28	0.38	0.38
education	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Father has primary	0.19**	0.17**	0.13	0.12
education	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.004)
Father has secondary	0.55	0.56	0.55	0.56
education	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Father has tertiary	0.26	0.27	0.32	0.33
education	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.006)
N	5,615	6,038	4,512	5,428

Notes: ***, ** denote statistical significance at the 1 and 5 percent levels, respectively. Standard deviations are in parentheses.

Table 2 Mothers’ and fathers’ number of days of temporary parental leave used in the control and treatment groups for the parental leave reforms: Predicted probabilities

	Mothers			Fathers
Child’s age	Control	Treatment	Difference	Control	Treatment	Difference
1995 reform
12 years	28.9	27.1	−1.8**	14.5	14.6	0.0
0–2 years	3.5	3.2	−0.2	2.2	2.1	−0.1
2–7 years	16.3	15.3	−1.0**	8.4	8.3	−0.1
7–12 years	9.1	8.7	−0.5	3.9	4.2	0.2
2002 reform
10 years	24.5	25.8	1.3	15.1	16.0	0.9
0–2 years	3.4	3.2	−0.2	2.9	3.0	0.1
2–7 years	15.4	16.6	1.1**	9.3	10.1	0.8**
7–10 years	5.7	6.1	0.4	2.9	2.9	0.0

Notes: The predicted number of days of temporary leave are controlled for child’s sex, child’s birth order, child’s region of birth within Sweden, multiple or single birth, parents’ ages, parents’ countries of origin, parents’ incomes, parents’ work sectors, and parents’ educational levels. ***, ** denote statistical significance at the 1 and 5 percent levels, respectively.

Table 3 Mothers’ and fathers’ number of days of temporary parental leave used in the control and treatment group for different levels of education: Predicted probabilities

	Mothers			Fathers
Child’s age	Control	Treatment	Difference	Control	Treatment	Difference
1995 reform (12 years)
Mother low, father low	28.6	28.0	−0.6	14.6	15.4	0.8
Mother low, father high	29.8	23.3	−6.5***	14.2	11.7	−2.5
Mother high, father low	31.4	28.4	−3.0	15.9	16.0	0.1
Mother high, father high	27.3	25.9	−1.4	13.1	12.1	−1.0
2002 reform (10 years)
Mother low, father low	25.6	26.4	0.7	15.8	17.2	1.4
Mother low, father high	22.0	25.6	3.5	13.1	14.7	1.6
Mother high, father low	26.8	27.7	0.9	17.5	16.2	−1.3
Mother high, father high	21.3	23.0	1.8	12.6	13.6	1.0

Notes: The predicted number of days of temporary leave are controlled for child’s sex, child’s birth order, child’s region of birth within Sweden, multiple or single birth, parents’ ages, parents’ countries of origin, parents’ incomes, parents’ work sectors, and parents’ educational levels. ***, ** denote statistical significance at the 1 and 5 percent levels, respectively.

Table 4 Mothers’ and fathers’ number of days of temporary parental leave used in the control and treatment group for the parental leave reforms: Predicted probabilities, robustness checks

	Mothers			Fathers
Child’s age	Control	Treatment	Difference	Control	Treatment	Difference
1995 reform (12 years)
Placebo model	24.7	25.7	1.0	13.6	13.2	−0.4
No control variables	29.1	27.0	−2.0**	14.5	14.6	0.1
Not separated	28.2	26.4	−1.9**	14.3	14.4	0.2
Separated	32.1	30.3	−1.7	15.6	15.1	−0.5
2 weeks	28.6	27.2	−1.4	14.1	14.1	0.0
3 weeks	28.5	27.3	−1.2	14.4	14.2	−0.2
2002 reform (10 years)
Placebo model	27.1	26.1	−1.0	16.5	16.2	−0.3
No control variables	24.7	26.0	1.3	15.1	16.0	0.9
Not separated	24.1	25.6	1.5	15.2	15.6	0.4
Separated	27.0	27.0	0.0	15.0	18.2	3.2
2 weeks	24.1	25.7	1.3	15.2	16.3	1.1
3 weeks	24.2	25.9	1.6	15.2	16.0	0.8

Notes: ***, ** denote statistical significance at the 1 and 5 percent levels, respectively.

Table A1 Descriptive statistics: Children born one year before reforms and diff-in-diff

	1995 reform		2002 reform		Diff-in-diff
	Dec 1993	Jan 1994	Dec 2000	Jan 2001	1995	2002
Girl	0.49	0.50	0.49	0.48	−0.005	0.006
	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.013)	(0.014)
Boy	0.51	0.50	0.51	0.52	0.005	−0.006
	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.013)	(0.014)
Mean age of mother	29.4	29.4	30.5	30.5	−0.156	−0.067
	(0.07)	(0.07)	(0.07)	(0.07)	(0.125)	(0.137)
Mean age of father	32.0	32.0	33.2	33.2	−0.137	−0.075
	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.153)	(0.166)
Mother is Swedish	0.89	0.90	0.84***	0.86***	−0.012	−0.016
born	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.008)	(0.010)
Mother is foreign	0.11	0.10	0.16***	0.14***	0.012	0.016
born	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.008)	(0.010)
Father is Swedish	0.89**	0.90**	0.84**	0.85**	−0.010	0.000
born	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.008)	(0.010)
Father is foreign	0.11**	0.10**	0.16**	0.15**	0.010	0.000
born	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.008)	(0.010)
Birth order: First	0.40	0.39	0.44	0.42	−0.005	−0.005
	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.013)	(0.014)
Birth order: Second	0.37	0.38	0.34***	0.37***	0.011	0.004
	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.013)	(0.014)
Birth order: Third+	0.23	0.23	0.22	0.21	−0.007	0.000
	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.011)	(0.012)
Mean income of	122.5**	124.5**	171.8**	175.6**	−2.35	−1.4
mother (1,000 SEK)	(0.70)	(0.70)	(1.33)	(1.33)	(1.40)	(2.64)
Mean income of	167.5**	170.5**	248.4	252.0	−2.54	−0.5
father (1,000 SEK)	(0.88)	(0.88)	(2.07)	(2.07)	(1.73)	(4.09)
Birth in a large city	0.32	0.31	0.35	0.36	0.007	−0.014
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.012)	(0.014)
Birth in a large town	0.32**	0.35**	0.34	0.33	−0.021	0.021
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.012)	(0.013)
Birth elsewhere in Sweden	0.35	0.35	0.31	0.31	0.014	−0.007
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.012)	(0.013)
Mother has primary	0.15**	0.14**	0.11	0.11	0.010	−0.007
education	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Mother has secondary	0.58	0.58	0.53	0.52	0.008	0.023
education	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.013)	(0.014)
Mother has tertiary	0.27**	0.29**	0.35	0.37	−0.018	−0.016
education	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.012)	(0.014)
Father has primary	0.19**	0.17**	0.13***	0.12***	0.002	0.006
education	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.010)	(0.009)
Father has secondary	0.56	0.57	0.55	0.56	−0.003	−0.008
education	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.013)	(0.014)
Father has tertiary	0.26	0.26	0.32	0.33	0.001	0.002
education	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.011)	(0.013)
Mother works in central	0.04**	0.05**	0.03	0.04	−0.011	−0.008
government	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Mother works in local	0.40	0.41	0.34	0.35	0.000	−0.002
government	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.013)	(0.013)
Mother works in private	0.42	0.42	0.50	0.51	0.004	0.004
sector	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.013)	(0.014)
Mother works in unknown	0.14**	0.13**	0.12**	0.10**	0.006	0.006
sector	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Father works in central	0.07	0.06	0.04	0.04	−0.007	−0.004
government	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Father works in local	0.10	0.10	0.08	0.09	0.013	0.000
government	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.008)	(0.008)
Father works in private	0.74	0.75	0.82	0.82	0.005	0.000
sector	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.011)	(0.011)
Father works in unknown	0.09	0.09	0.06	0.05	−0.011	0.003
sector	(0.004)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.007)	(0.006)
N	5,493	6,491	4,634	5,423	23,637	19,997

Notes: ***, ** denote statistical significance at the 1 and 5 percent levels, respectively. Standard deviations in parentheses.