The construction of UK sustainable housing policy and the role of pressure groups

Abstract

UK sustainable housing policy defines sustainability in technical environmental terms, but a social dimension is present in some policy measures. The various measures (exhortatory, regulatory, and economic) are outlined. Particular focus is placed on the “100% zero carbon by 2016” objective for new housing and the measures designed to achieve it. The development of the policy is explained in terms of international commitments, party politics, lobbying by the building materials and energy industries, and by “pioneer” local governments. The policy has not been the object of a mass environmental movement, and has low political saliency. The tension between Building Regulations, supported by the house-building industry, and local government planning policy as policy tools is discussed. It is argued that the reluctance of the house-building industry to include sustainability features in new houses undermines its influence vis-à-vis that of other industries and of local government.

Keywords:

• sustainable housing
• zero carbon
• housing policy
• business lobbies
• pressure groups

Acknowledgement

This is a revised version of a paper presented at a conference on Environment and Policy at the University of Toulouse in June 2007, the International Sociological Association RC21 Conference on Urban Justice and Sustainability, August 2007, Vancouver and the Conference on Urban Sustainable Development, Saint Etienne, May 2008.

Notes

Where measures do not apply to the whole of the UK, this is indicated.

The Brundtland report defined “sustainable development” as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED 1987, p. 43). This concept has given rise to much debate (Connelly 2007, Vanderheiden, 2008). Needs can mean everything from what people have now to what future generations might want. Development can be economic/quantitative or social/qualitative. Desirable features such as social justice and social stability can be treated as intrinsic to sustainability. Impact can be captured as ecological footprint or carrying capacity.

See Beal (2008) who argues that this applies more generally to sustainable urban development.

Brownfield sites are sites previously used for development. Development can range from manufacturing and quarrying to residential, which includes gardens.

The Sullivan Committee (2007) supported a zero carbon target for Scotland but it has not yet been adopted by the Scottish Government. The Welsh government has said it would like to achieve the target as early as 2011 but Wales does not have separate Building Regulations.

The zero carbon standard is extremely high: “For a new home to be genuinely zero carbon it will need to deliver zero carbon (net over the year) for all energy use in the home – cooking, washing, and electronic entertainment devices, as well as space heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, and hot water. This will require renewable or very low-carbon energy in addition to high levels of insulation, etc.” (DCLG 2006b, para 2.33) This is above the continental “PassivHaus” standard, to which only 6000 houses had been built by 2006 (http://www.passivhaus.org.uk/). This proposal therefore involves a quantum jump.

The EST also operates in Scotland, but with funding from the Scottish Government.

Interestingly, EST also acts as a lobby, and advocates council tax rebates to households for installing energy efficient features in the existing housing stock and rebates on stamp duty etc. for builders for new houses (EST 2005). Its calculations show that £130 million of expenditure on incentives would generate savings for households of £3.6 billion. So far the government has ignored these proposals, no doubt because the short-term loss of tax revenues to the Treasury weighs more strongly with it than the long-term gains to households.

For these purposes “zero carbon” is defined as houses that over a year are net exporters of home or locally generated power to the national grid. Stamp duty land tax is levied on the sale of all houses above £125,000. The rates are currently 1% from £125,001, 3% from £250,001, and 4% above £500,000. The maximum value of this exemption per house is thus £15,000. It was later announced that houses above £500,000 will also receive the £15,000 exemption.

The Code does not apply in Wales or Scotland.

For example, energy-saving lights, cycle storage facilities, waste recycling capacity, drying facilities, eco-labelled white goods, renewable/low-carbon technologies, a home office, environmental impact of building materials, areas of low flood risk, low rainwater run-off, home composting, daylight, sound insulation, Lifetime Homes standard (external and internal accessibility, adaptability), a site of low ecological value, or enhanced ecological value, or high-density building.

BRE research found that 32% and 60% of new houses in two samples failed to meet Building Regulations requirements on air permeability (HoCEAC 2005, para 114). The Environment Agency states more baldly that “over 30% of new homes do not comply with the Building Regulations” (HoCEAC 2006, Ev 12). This is considered to reflect a lack of resourcing and technical expertise for building inspection. (Building inspection was previously carried out free of charge by councils; it is now a paid for service open to private inspectors. There has also been a growth in self-certification by contractors.) According to the BRE, “building control officers are not really trained nor do they have the resources to check on environmental aspects” (HoCEAC 2005, para 113). Likewise the LGA argued “that the Regulations are becoming too detailed and complex to be fully understood and many local authorities are also concerned that the Regulations are becoming burdensome to enforce” (HoCEAC 2005, para 113).

Thus, it appears that the Building Regulations are far from fully effective in areas where specialist environmental expertise is needed, and that enforcement is rare and costly. This is in line with studies of enforcement which argue that inspectors prefer to rely on education and negotiation, and see legal action as costly, as something that exposes them to public gaze, as well as being an admission of failure (Hawkins 1984, Lowe et al. 1997, Fineman 2000).

Scotland has a separate planning system.

In June 2006, the Minister of Housing and Planning announced that “Government expect all planning authorities to include policies in their development plans that require a percentage of the energy in new developments to come from on-site renewables” (www.themertonrule.org). PPS22 is currently being revised and there is a conflict between developers and local councils over the precise terms in which this requirement will be expressed.

For comparative information on the installation of PV systems see http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/index.htm.

The DCLG found that 29 out of 84 respondents to its consultation supported financial incentives of some kind (2007b, p. 27).

I have also benefited from conversations with officials.

A small number of building firms have adopted a more “green” image. Two of them, Crest Nicholson and Wimpey, say explicitly that they thought it would help with marketing and also enable them to pay less for land bought from landowners who also had green views. However, both admitted that their decision had not been commercially advantageous (HoCEAC 2006, Ev 32, 33).

Williams and Dair's (2007) study of obstacles to sustainable housing reported a widespread ignorance of sustainability features and the lack of regulations requiring them.

Likewise, at the international level, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, which treats sustainable development as a business opportunity, has 200 member companies. Building suppliers and energy companies are prominent; housebuilders are not (www.wbcsd.org).

Andrew Warren, Director of ACE, presented his evidence to the House of Commons Select committees, e.g. his evidence to the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, 24 January 2007 Climate Change: the Citizens Agenda.

For an account of Canadian local governments taking the lead in home energy rating after federal government had cancelled the scheme (Parker and Rowlands 2007).

The WWF representative withdrew from the Group due to the direction taken by its work. The 2005 draft Code did not mandate standards for the private sector, or require social housing to achieve the EcoHomes Excellent level.

There are also some revolutionary house designs, e.g. BEDZED: www.peabody.org.uk/bedZED.