Physical activity amongst culturally and linguistically diverse communities in Australia: a scoping review

Figures & data

Table 1. Search strategy in MEDLINE.

	Searches	Results
1	Exp *Exercise/	150627
2	(physical exercise* or physical activit* or running or sport or exertion or fitness or motor activity).ti,ab.	338521
3	1 or 2	424527
4	cross-cultural comparison/ or cultural characteristics/ or cultural diversity/	54166
5	(cultur* or multicultur* or cultur* divers* or CALD or non-english speak* or NESB or ‘culturally and linguistically diverse’).ti,ab.	1214054
6	(migrant* or immigrant* or refugee*).mp. [mp = title, abstract, original title, name of substance word, subject heading work, floating sub-heading word, keyword heading word, organism supplementary concept word, protocol supplementary concept word, rare disease supplementary concept word, unique identifier, synonyms]	67287
7	4 or 5 or 6	1297593
8	exp Australia/	159921
9	(Australia* or Victoria or New South Wales or Tasmania or Queensland or Northern Territory or Western Australia or South Australia or Australian Capital Territory).ti,ab.	170605
10	8 or 9	226165
11	3 and 7 and 10	355
12	limit 11 to yr=’2021 – Current’	49
13	limit 12 to English language	49

Table 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion criteria	Exclusion criteria
Published 2000 – February 2022 Published in English Scholarly literature Primary research Qualitative studies Focused on CALD populations in Australia	Abstracts, dissertation or conference proceedings Participants under 18 years of age Studies specifically targeting populations with health issues Studies specifically focusing on post-partum or pregnant populations

Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram.

Table 3. Characteristics of included studies.

Study	Aim	Setting	Number of participants	Participant characteristics	Modes of recruitment	Study design	Language used for data collection	Themes/Subthemes
Addo et al. 2019	Investigate post-migration changes in dietary and physical activity behaviour among Australian residents who were born in Sub-Saharan Africa and to explore factors accounting for this change and the extent to which the factors are related to immigration	VIC and NSW	24 (14M, 10W)	Sub-Saharan African First generation migrants Mean age 36 years	Advertised at community gatherings through flyers and word of mouth Quota sampling was used to minimise selection bias	Semi-structured interviews via face to face or over telephone 20-80 min	English	Perceptions of physical activity Decrease in physical activity after migration Misconceptions about physical activity Health condition as a limitation Acceptability and appropriateness Social support as enabler Accessibility Safety concerns Competing priorities Financial restraints Weather
Caperchione, Kolt, and Mummery 2013	To examine the perspective of multicultural health service providers for CALD groups with respect to the physical activity services/initiatives on offer, access barriers to these services and ideas for future service delivery in this area	NSW, QLD, VIC	15 stakeholders (2M, 13W)	Multicultural health service providers Mean age 37 years	Online and manual search of organisations that provided health promoting services to CALD communities throughout these three areas	Semi-structured interviews	English	Perceptions of physical activity Misconceptions about physical activity Accessibility Limited availability of culturally sensitive and appropriate programs Language barriers Financial restraints Lack of transport
Caperchione et al. 2011	What are the perceptions, attitudes, opinions, and beliefs concerning the physical activity behaviours of CALD women?	NSW, QLD, VIC	110 (W)	Bosnian (N = 25), Arabic speaking (N = 29), Filipino (N = 31) and Sudanese communities First generation migrants (N = 25) Age range ≥ 18 years Mean age 46 years	CALD women who were associated with community partner organisation were contacted by phone, email or in person. Translator/interpreter was used	Semi-structured interviews	A translator/interpreter was used during four focus groups (one Arabic group and all three Bosnian groups)	Perceptions of physical activity Ambiguity over whether incidental activities were considered physical activity Decline in physical activity post migration Acceptability and appropriateness Social supports as an enabler Cultural barriers Need for public modesty Health as a motivator and a barrier Accessibility Competing commitments Safety concerns
Caperchoine, Mummery, and Joyner 2009	Address the barriers and challenges to physical activity participation in selected priority women’s groups and present possible strategies to assist with engaging these groups in physical activity	NSW, QLD, VIC	78 (W)	1 group of mothers with young children 2 groups of working women 2 groups of older women 2 CALD groups Mean age not reported	Those who participated in the Women’s Active Living Kits (WALK) program	10 focus groups in semi-structured interview	A translator/interpreter was used during one of the focus group sessions to accommodate CALD group participants who spoke minimal or no English.	Acceptability and appropriateness Low self-esteem and poor body image Cultural barriers Importance of social support Accessibility Competing commitments Financial constraints Safety concerns Weather
Cerin et al. 2019	Identify built and social environmental facilitators of and barriers to regular engagement in physical activity, eating a healthy diet and regular contact with people	VIC	37 (14M, 23W)	Chinese First generation migrants Age range ≥ 60 years Mean age 71 years	Advertisements in Chinese newspapers, presentations delivered at Chinese senior groups and Chinese speaking churches and posters in community libraries and medical centres	Focus groups using Nominal group technique	Mandarin or Cantonese	Acceptability and appropriateness Importance of social support Accessibility Proximity to location as key enabler Language barriers Poor/inadequate public transport
El Masri, Kolt, and George 2021	Explore the perceptions, barriers and enablers to physical activityand minimising sedentary behaviour among Arab-Australians	NSW	28 (8M, 20W)	Arab-Australian (majority were Lebanese) Majority were women Majority were first generation migrants (N = 21) Age range 35–64 years Mean age 45 years	Recruited through distribution of flyers and word-of-mouth through four community based and religious organisations	Focus group	All materials were available in English and Arabic Interpreters used for those whose primary language was no English	Perceptions of physical activity Misconceptions about physical activity Decrease in physical activity upon migration Acceptability and appropriateness Health as a barrier and motivator Lack of social support Lack of motivation Culturally driven gender roles as barriers Accessibility Competing commitments Lack of locally available and culturally appropriate services Financial barriers
Fernandes et al. 2021	To (1) identify how physical activity and sedentary behaviour are defined by Indian migrants living in Australia; (2) describe how these definitions are shaped by cultural background and migration.	VIC	21 (10M, 11W)	Indian migrants 18 first generation 3 second generation Age range 18–65 years	Word of mouth, social media channels and posters at various community centres, local libraries, local Indian grocery stores and cultural organisations	Semi-structured interviews	English	Perceptions of physical activity Varying definitions of physical activity Acceptability and appropriateness Cultural barriers
Hartley, Fleay, and Tye 2017	Explore engagement in physical activity as a potential coping strategy and benefits or barriers to undertaking such activity	NSW, VIC, WA	29 (23M, 6W)	Asylum seekers from Afghanistan (N = 10), Sri Lanka (N = 7), Iran (N = 12) who arrived to Australia by boat after 13 August 2012 and were living in the community Mean age not reported	Recruited through contacts known to authors	Semi-structured interviews	Interpreters were used when required	Acceptability and appropriateness Poor mental health as a barrier Accessibility Financial restraints Language barriers
Hayba, Shi, and Allman-Farinelli 2021	Explore opinions of Middle Eastern parents on the barriers and enablers to sufficient physical activity and limiting screen time behaviours in adolescents	Australia	26 (W)	Middle Eastern parents (majority were Lebanese) to a teenager aged 13–18 years old	Recruitment flyers were shared on social media platforms (such as Facebook), posted on public noticeboards in the local government area and were distributed in areas where parents of Middle Eastern backgrounds congregate (e.g. local community and recreation centres)	Semi-structured interviews	English	Acceptability and appropriateness Awareness of physical, mental and cognitive impacts from lack of physical activity
Koo 2011	How older Hong Kong Chinese Australians perceive aging and to what extent this perception affects their participation in physical activity	NSW	22 (12M, 10W)	Hong Kong Chinese Australians First generation migrants Age range 60–91 years Mean age 76 years	Contacts were made with church ministers, friends’ families, neighbours and physiotherapist from various suburbs in the sample area	In depth interviews	All interviews conducted in Cantonese	Acceptability and appropriateness Fatalistic attitudes towards health and aging restricted engagement in physical activity Reactive approach to health Importance of social support Limited by physical health Accessibility Transport barriers
O’Callaghan et al. 2021	To explore stakeholders and participants perceptions of the Chinese Get Healthy Information and Coaching Service since it had been in operation, including the effectiveness of promotion, resources, and program delivery.	NSW	11 participants (3M, 8W) 14 stakeholders (gender not recorded)	Participants were first generation migrants from China Age range participants 35- > 75 years	Research assistant contacting stakeholders and participants involved in the program by phone	Focus group with participants and interviews with Chinese stakeholders	Mandarin and Cantonese	Perceptions of physical activity Lack of preventative health campaigns in native country Accessibility Bilingual/bicultural nature critical to program success Preference for face-to-face delivery
Oliver et al. 2007	To explores the traditional culture of Pukapuka people living in the Illawarra region of NSW and how migration to the region has affected their lifestyle, health and wellbeing	NSW	24 (11M, 13W)	Pukapuka people (Cook Islands) First generation migrants Mean age not reported	Not clearly specified	Focus groups	English	Perceptions of physical activity Decline in health post migration Acceptability and appropriateness Gender differences – while men often perceived their physical activity levels as adequate, many women reported need for additional activities Accessibility Safety concerns
Pink, Mahoney, and Saunders 2020	To explore the case of the Kicking Goals Together programme for evidence of positive youth development among refugee migrant youth	Australia	6 participants (5M, 1W) 4 stakeholders (2M, 2W)	Refugee and migrants from Myanmar, Afghanistan and Eritrea Mean age participants 20 years Mean age stakeholders 34 years	Participants and stakeholders in the program were given an information letter about the study and invited to participate.	Semi-structured interviews	English	Acceptability and appropriateness Difficulty forming connection with local community Accessibility Financial barriers Transport barriers Safety concerns
Reis et al. 2020	To explore leisure-time physical activity participation for humanitarian migrants in regional Australia and these meaning’s implications for health	NSW	32 in the qualitative component of research (*14M, 18W) *imputed from percentages of all study participants	Afghanistan, Iran, Myanmar, DR Congo, Ethiopia, Liberia, South Sudan Syria, Togo, Burkina Faso, Burundi Mean age of qualitative component participants not reported Age range 18-> 50 for all study participants	Assisted through local charity organisation	Focus group and individual based semi-structured interviews	English	Perceptions of physical activity Physical activity seen as a privilege that they could not afford Physical activity mostly occurring outside realm of leisure Acceptability and appropriateness High rates of unemployment, poor mental health, and social isolation No previous engagement with physical activity and unemployment were associated with lower physical activity engagement Importance of social support Accessibility Financial barriers Language barriers
Renzaho, McCabe, and Swinburn 2012	To explore intergenerational differences in food, physical activity and body size perceptions among refugees and migrants from the Horn of Africa living in Victoria Australia.	VIC	48 (15M, 33W)	Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan 34 out of 48 participants over 18 years Mean age of adults 33 years	Recruited from locations where African refugee and migrants congregate and was supported by the African Review Panel	18 individual interviews, 3 semi-structured focus groups Allocation based on availability and whether they belong to an already formed social group	Data collected by bilingual workers	Perceptions of physical activity Misconceptions of physical activity Acceptability and appropriateness Weight gain culturally endorsed as a sign of success Accessibility Safety concerns
Willcox-Pidgeon et al. 2021	(1) Understand the motivation of adult migrants to participate in swimming and water safety programs (2) Gain insight into factors influencing adult migrants participation in water based activities (3) Determine if swimming programs being delivered met the needs of the target audience (4) Inform future strategies	NSW	35 (W)	First generation migrants (Afghanistan, India and Sri Lanka) Age range ≥ 25 years	Individuals invited through program coordinators	Focus group and interviews	Questions were sent to several English language teachers to test the appropriateness of language and comprehension for people with English as another language Interpreters were used for two of the focus groups due to some participants having limited English language skills	Perceptions of physical activity Perceived physical and mental benefits from engaging with physical activity Acceptability and appropriateness Intrinsic motivation often related to their children Importance of program coordinator and social supports Cultural barriers Accessibility Financial barriers Competing commitments
You et al. 2021	To examine and compare perceived benefits of and barriers and enablers to physical activity in older Caucasian and Chinese adults living in Australia	Australia	64 (17 Caucasian and 47 Chinese; 24M, 40W)	Caucasian and Chinese adults living in Australia Chinese people were defined as of Chinese ancestry, self-identifying as Chinese and/or speaking Mandarin or Cantonese as first language Mean age 74 years Age range ≥ 60 years	Advertising on websites of relevant research institutes and community organisations, using Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn, seeking assistance from senior clubs, community organisations, libraries, news agencies and radio stations and giving community talks	Semi-structured interviews	English, Mandarin or Cantonese	Perceptions of physical activity Lower proportion of Chinese adults rated themselves as physically active Aware of benefits of physical activity on physical health but had inconsistent views on its benefits on mental and cognitive health Health as enabler and barrier Acceptability and appropriateness Lack of motivation Accessibility Competing commitments Older age as a barrier Language barrier Financial barriers Weather Environmental barriers

Table 4. Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) assessment.

Study name	Was there a clear statement of the aims of the research?	Is a qualitative methodology appropriate?	Was the research design appropriate to address the aims of the research?	Was the recruitment strategy appropriate to the aims of the research?	Was the data collected in a way that addressed the research issue?	Has the relationship between researcher and participant been adequately considered?	Have ethical issues been taken into consideration?	Was the data analysis sufficiently rigorous?	Is there a clear statement of findings?	How valuable is the research?
Addo et al. 2019	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	N	Y	Y
Caperchione et al. 2013	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	N	Y	Y
Caperchione et al. 2011	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	Can’t tell	Y	Y
Caperchione et al. 2009	Y	Y	Y	N	N	N	Y	Can’t tell	Y	Y
Cerin et al. 2019	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	Y	Y	Y
El Masri, Kolt, and George 2021	Y	Y	Y	Y	Can’t tell	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Fernandes et al. 2021	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Hartley et al. 2017	Y	Y	Y	Y	Can’t tell	Y	Y	N	Y	Y
Hayba et al. 2021	Y	Y	Y	Y.	Y	Can’t tell	Y	Y	Y	Y
Koo 2011	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	N	N	Y
O’Callaghan et al. 2021	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	Y
Oliver et al. 2007	Y	Y	Y	N	N	N	N	N	N	Y
Pink et al. 2020	Y	Y	Y	Y	Can’t tell	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Reis et al. 2020	Y	Y	Y	Can’t tell	Can’t tell	N	Y	Y	Y	Y
Renzaho, McCabe, and Swinburn 2012	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	Can’t tell	Y	Can’t tell	Y	Y
Willcox-Pidgeon et al. 2021	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	Y	Y	Y
You et al. /2021	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	Y	Y	Y

Y = yes; N = no

Table 5. Themes.

Theme	Subthemes	Supporting quotations
Perceptions of physical activity	Varied definitions Complex relationships with health Decline in physical activity post-migration	Q1 ‘Housework is just working every day, I would not say it is sport or exercise, I feel we have to make special exercises for our bodies’. (Caperchione et al. 2011) Q2 ‘ … it’s um, actually jogging, that’s what I feel, it’s like um not walking, [rather] doing hard exercise which we need and we don’t, we don’t do it’. (El Masri, Kolt, and George 2021) Q3 ‘I like to push myself physically to the limit where my body starts to shut down and almost get exhausted, that to me is exercise, rather than just going for a nice, gentle walk’. (Fernandes et al. 2021) Q4 ‘Physical activity means the overall development of a person … mentally as well as physically’. (Fernandes et al. 2021) Q5 ‘I will encourage her not to lose weight more than this, and I will not bring instruments or equipment for exercise into the house. So I will ban exercise instruments in the house’. (Renzaho, McCabe, and Swinburn 2012) Q6 ‘Like I said, being physically active can deter a lot of health issues and just maintaining a good body weight and so helps with the growth as well and things like that. So, I think it’s very important. Yes’. (Hayba, Shi, and Allman-Farinelli 2021) Q7 ‘When we were in Somalia we never had consciousness of the link between heavy weight and diseases. And now we have this awareness all the time. Teenagers know they are at risk of obesity. They know their risk because of being in school. This brings arguments, and trying to tell the father or the mother the right way, but he or she does not want to know’. (Renzaho, McCabe, and Swinburn 2012) Q8 ‘We are more active, exercising more is good for our bodies, want to continue going more regularly, weight loss, very good for mental health’. (Willcox-Pidgeon et al. 2021) Q9 ‘I know for myself, if I don’t exercise, I’m grumpy all the time. I’m eating anything. I’m making excuses not to exercise or, you know, and just feeling bad all day. Like, physically and mentally because you’re not doing any movement, there’s no movement. There’s no, there’s nothing there, like … And you notice the change in the anger now that he’s actually more calmer that he’s go to the gym. He’s you know, the weights he does or whatever he does. He’s releasing his tension in that. So, which is better. Like, you see a complete mood changes as well so yeah’. (Hayba, Shi, and Allman-Farinelli 2021) Q10 ‘Even if you’re awake you don’t get out of the bed because there’s nothing else to do. Even if [we want to be] physically active, mentally it doesn’t allow us to do or participate in activities’. (Hartley, Fleay, and Tye 2017) Q11 ‘I don’t have a good head to do any activity. Before I was a soccer player in my country. But when I have become refugee, a refugee life! I don’t wish this life to anybody. […] You lost everything. Every day no good life for refugee […] I am in Australia. I thank God to provide such an opportunity to me and my family. But there is no job to do. We also have language barrier […] This is a very big problem for me. I don’t have anything to think, doing any activities like sports’. (Reis et al. 2020) Q12 ‘Exercise is not my priority because I don’t think I’m obese or I’m fat’. (Addo et al. 2019) Q13 ‘No, personally I think that nothing motivated me expect when I found out like I’m low on vitamin D. Now I’m really motivated to do some exercise’. (El Masri, Kolt, and George 2021) Q14 ‘I had a stroke 10 years ago and half of my body could not move. So I started to do exercise, Tai Chi’. (You et al. 2021) Q15 ‘If I have any health problems, it is irreversible. Just like a pot and a wok. You cannot use them forever. You will discard them in the rubbish bin one day’. (Koo 2011) Q16 ‘I have problems in my cervix, so I feel restricted to the kind of exercise I can handle … I used to love to swim but I started to get cramps so now I panic when I am swimming’. (Caperchione et al. 2011) Q17 ‘I used to ride bike. No matter how far away the destination was, I would ride there. Now I do not have the courage, I am worried I would fall over’. (You et al. 2021) Q18 ‘So, the difference here is when you come to physical activities, […] there we do because we do what we are supposed to do and at the same time we are physical active. Here, you are not so active, you need to have your own plan to do physical activities intentionally’. (Reis et al. 2020) Q19 ‘What I find interesting is that in Africa, you are not aware that you’re exercising but you’re exercising. We were exercising unconsciously. Because there’s a lot of walking. I wasn’t driving back then, so there was a lot of walking … here (in Australia) … I am always driving, … ’ (Addo et al. 2019) Q20 ‘We were more active in (country of origin) then here, it was part of our day. In (country of origin) we don’t have a school bus so we walk on our legs, we walk to collect kerosene to use to cook or to go shopping’. (Caperchoine, Mummery, and Joyner 2009) Q21 ‘I used to be a sports’ girl, every kind of sports, tennis, netball, swimming, everything … When I came to Australia, I got lazy, I don’t play sports anymore’. (Addo et al. 2019) Q22 ‘ … I don’t exercise as much as I used to in Ghana. I used to do a lot of exercise back in Ghana, but I’m not able to do that much exercise here’. (Addo et al. 2019)
Acceptability and appropriateness	• Cultural and religious backgrounds • Social supports	Q23 ‘In our culture men usually do nothing at home. Women do the cooking and the cleaning, even if they work. If they want to do something they don’t have the chance’. (Caperchione et al. 2011) Q24 ‘ … You come from a certain class or a certain caste, where women are expected to do traditional roles. So, a mother is just a mother, and her role is defined. She has got to cook she has got to look after the family. She’s not somebody who is encouraged to take up any hobbies’. (Fernandes et al. 2021) Q25 ‘We don’t have [a] life mate, just get kids, clean, cook, look after [the] husband … ’ (El Masri, Kolt, and George 2021) Q26 ‘Because in my culture, women have different rules and boys have different laws. We are not equal. We’re all living in Australia but we are not equal. […] In my culture, if boys do anything that come from any other culture, it’s ok. But if girls do, […] it becomes a very big issue. So I feel like in my culture we are not equal, we are not in equal right’. (Reis et al. 2020) Q27 ‘When I was your age, we were not so open-minded. The people were very conservative. If I wore a swimsuit, my father-in-law would scold me and say, “you are so bad”’. (Koo 2011) Q28 ‘But I don’t feel comfortable around men, to do any exercise’. (El Masri, Kolt, and George 2021) Q29 ‘If we would like to go to the gym then we have to mention the person there, there is no men to go inside. That’s a bit of problem for us. You have to trust the people there, because it’s our religion. It’s very hard’. (Caperchione et al. 2011) Q30 ‘If I have a company, I will have the motivation to play it (Tai Chi)’. (You et al. 2021) Q31 ‘ … like the encouragement, like if you have friends who have similar, similar hobbies or similar activities, like two or three want to go walking, it will be a habit on a certain day, a certain time, but sometimes if you are alone, you’ll skip it today’. (El Masri, Kolt, and George 2021) Q32 ‘One of the reasons why I joined the walking group was because I was going to be in a group. When (name) and (name) mentioned this group I jumped at the chance because I know I can lose a bit of weight and get the right nutrition values as well as everything. Now that I have joined the walking group I’ve met heaps of other women, we’ve got a friendship now. That’s all I wanted, was to find friends as well as go on a walk and feel safe’. (Caperchoine, Mummery, and Joyner 2009) Q33 ‘Yes, we need someone to push us harder because sometimes we are doing it but we laugh and we’re not really pushing hard, we need someone to make us huff and puff’. (Caperchoine, Mummery, and Joyner 2009) Q34 ‘Doing it with other people is really good because you’re always learning new stuff. But doing it by your own sometime you don’t feel motivated, you feel lazy. But if you have someone with you, he will push you. I always want someone to come with me’. (Reis et al. 2020) Q35 ‘In Australia, we don’t have any help at all. In our country, we have our relatives, like brother or sister or nephews or nieces to look after the kids while we can have time a little bit to ourselves to relax. But in here you tend to do everything and as they said, it’s more kind of a stressful way financially and physically.’ (Caperchione et al. 2011)
Accessibility	• Limited availability of services • Language barriers • Financial concerns • Environmental factors (safety, transport, weather)	Q36 ‘I feel because there are fewer people in Australia (compared with China), so they have fewer exercise facilities. I hope they can provide more facilities’. (You et al. 2021) Q37 ‘We don’t have enough people that can facilitate these types of things. There’s not that many people here that have the level of skill that can run things like this’. (Caperchoine, Mummery, and Joyner 2009) Q38 ‘ … for us, as, like as mothers in that age, I don’t [think] there is a lot of things available for us … ’. (El Masri, Kolt, and George 2021) Q39 ‘The problem is we don’t want to swim mixed – boys and girls mixed. We don’t know of any other places where it’s close to our houses and has women only so that’s the problem’. (Willcox-Pidgeon et al. 2021) Q40 ‘They don’t know English, so they don’t know there’s this thing (exercise class) so that they can join’. (You et al. 2021) Q41 ‘It will be much better for them to communicate; a lot complain about the interpreter. So, if they can use their own language, [this] will make them feel comfortable to tell [the coaches] their issues’. (O’Callaghan et al. 2021) Q42 ‘I am very introverted. I don’t know English. I don’t know how to communicate with other people. I’m afraid of saying something wrong. I enjoy staying at home and doing indoor activities’. (Koo 2011) Q43 ‘Like jogging, it was a normal way of life as you don’t have money to afford transport (in Nigeria) … When I came here (Australia), when I try to go to the gym and I was asked to pay $700 to register to start “gyming”, I said, “this was a free thing that I was getting back home. Now, why should I be paying for it?”’ (Addo et al. 2019) Q44 ‘I wanted to go [to the gym] but the income support that I’m receiving, it’s not really enough … if I [had enough money] I definitely would go because days are very hard to pass so that would be a very good hobby to go and just pass the day.’ (Hartley, Fleay, and Tye 2017) Q45 ‘If it (Tai Chi) needs to pay, many people will not learn. Older people do not have money.’ (You et al. 2021) Q46 ‘Sometimes I think its money, can’t afford. Like I was enjoying when my kids were there and I was joining in with my kids but when I asked about the money they said $15 per lesson, it’s good but with four kids I don’t think I can afford to have $15 to pay for myself every week … ’ (Willcox-Pidgeon et al. 2021) Q47 ‘I always set aside the time for me to walk in the morning but then one time I was walking, there was somebody who stopped his car near me and followed me. I didn’t go walking any more after that.’ (Caperchione et al. 2011) Q48 ‘ … I’ve had some unpleasant experiences. I used to go for walks. On two occasions and two different paths, while walking by the street, people threw things (e.g. eggs) at me.’ (Addo et al. 2019) Q49 ‘Around the suburb and the house, it is not safe. The park is far, because here there are people who inject drugs and they throw syringe, and if you step on it then you are finished. I am worried about that.’ (Renzaho, McCabe, and Swinburn 2012) Q50 ‘We have great walking tracks around the area but they are very secluded so safety is an issue. I prefer to go in groups because my husband won’t agree to me walking on my own.’ (Caperchoine, Mummery, and Joyner 2009) Q51 ‘ … I really think that somehow transportation needs to be met. Transport has always been an issue in our community and I think it’s probably a problem overall, no matter which community.’ (Caperchoine, Mummery, and Joyner 2009) Q52 ‘I don’t have any means of transportation, any vehicle to travel far distances, even if I catch the public transportation so I need to pay much more money for that … if I catch the bus from here to my house, it’s $1.25 and if I want to go to the city by bus, it’s $7 or something … ’ (Hartley, Fleay, and Tye 2017) Q53 ‘ … in Africa, it was always warm. So just walking … back and forth and doing things, you just sweat, you’re burning things, … (in Australia) winter comes, too cold … ,you postpone it (planned exercise) to the next day, you postpone it (to) the other day. It’s just kind of start getting harder, as you get colder, it gets harder … ’ (Addo et al. 2019) Q54 ‘I guess the weather it prevents you from going out … like going out today when it’s cold and wet. You just keep yourself warm at home, so of course you won’t exercise when you’re home.’ (You et al. 2021)

Figure 2. Recommendations to increase physical activity participation for people from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds in Australia.

Addo, I. Y., L. Brener, A. D. Asante, and J. de Wit. 2019. “Determinants of Post-Migration Changes in Dietary and Physical Activity Behaviours and Implications for Health Promotion: Evidence From Australian Residents of Sub-Saharan African Ancestry.” Health Promotion Journal of Australia 30 (Suppl. 1): 62–71. doi:10.1002/hpja.233

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Caperchione, C. M., G. S. Kolt, and W. K. Mummery. 2013. “Examining Physical Activity Service Provision to Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) Communities in Australia: A Qualitative Evaluation.” PLoS One 8 (4): e62777. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062777

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Caperchione, C. M., G. S. Kolt, R. Tennent, and W. K. Mummery. 2011. “Physical Activity Behaviours of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) Women Living in Australia: A Qualitative Study of Socio-Cultural Influences.” BMC Public Health 11: 26. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-26

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Caperchoine, C., W. K. Mummery, and K. Joyner. 2009. “Addressing the Challenges, Barriers, and Enablers to Physical Activity Participation in Priority Women’s Groups.” Journal of Physical Activity & Health 6 (5): 589–596. doi:10.1123/jpah.6.5.589

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Cerin, E., A. Nathan, W. K. Choi, W. Ngan, S. Yin, L. Thornton, and A. Barnett. 2019. “Built and Social Environmental Factors Influencing Healthy Behaviours in Older Chinese Immigrants to Australia: A Qualitative Study.” International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition & Physical Activity 16 (1): 116. doi:10.1186/s12966-019-0885-3

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