Doing the groundwork? transferring a UK environmental planning approach to Japan

Abstract

The paper examines the transfer and operation of the UK Groundwork (GW) model in Japan and sets out the development of GW in the UK since the early 1980s. The study discusses two case study areas in Japan and explores the wider cultural and political issues that face the transfer of environmental action programmes. It was found that Japanese groups have been developing their own approaches using the Groundwork label, yet for GW ideas and practices to become understood and accepted in Japan, as has been the case in the UK, a longer timeframe and better support is needed. It is concluded that while there may be benefit in using the GW label there are also significant barriers to the successful adoption of Groundwork in Japan, including a different socio-political context for the spread of community-based schemes. There is also an opportunity, however, through GW and similar transformative planning efforts to help strengthen civil society and partnership working in Japan. While some of the difficulties have been acknowledged in Japan it is argued that national governmental support will be necessary for GW Japan to emulate its UK parent.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of the Nihon University Special Overseas Research Fund in developing this research, as well as numerous participants who took part in the research in Japan and the UK.

Notes

1. Indeed the creation of Local Strategic Partnerships (LSPs) under the Local Government Act 2000 has seen the private and community sectors being drawn more centrally into the structures of local governance as part of the UK local government modernization agenda (see DETR, 2001; Doak & Parker, 2005).

2. We are aware of the difficulty of analysing the Japanese context; at the same time we do not, however, wish to adopt the Nihonjin-ron line which would describe Japan as being in some way unique or indecipherable (Sorensen, 2002a, b; Dale, 1986).

3. Kansonminpi is an attitude exhibited more by the Japanese bureaucracy. This manifests itself as a mistrust of the public and consequent unwillingness to share responsibility. From the citizen's side there has been a Gyousei-izon mentality which is a, perhaps consequential, dependency on the public sector.

4. These are structures of formal governance through local community groups based on the neighbourhood scale. Over most of Japan each household will become a member automatically of a Chonaikai or Jichikai. Their role has a comprehensive and complementary function as the most local tier of municipal government or kansonminpi-okami-sisou and are similar to UK parishes in this respect (Shiriashi et al., 2002; Yoshihara & Dwianto, 2003).

5. The term machi-zukuri has a warmth in its sound and subtlety to its meaning compared to keikaku, which conveys the power and top-down authority of the bureaucracy (Shiraishi et al., 2002).

6. Local planning has been actualized by engineers, in contradistinction to planners and specialized development workers from social science backgrounds in the UK and elsewhere.

7. UK Secretary of State for the Environment, 1983–85.

8. An organogram of internal JGA organization is located on the JGA website: http://www.groundwork.or.jp.

9. Before the 2001 restructuring of central government ministries there were five departments funding the JGA (see Table 2).

10. The city is located on the 400 year old Tokkaido road, a key Tokugawan-era (1600–1868) road between Kyoto and Tokyo which linked the old and new capitals of feudal Japan. Mishima was one of the 53 staging points along the route. Its associated heritage is now an important tourist attraction for the towns and villages lining the route (see Dunn, 1969).

11. The Kohamaike lake is still without a water supply, excepting rare occasions over the last three decades when some spring water has reached the lake.

12. The Baikamo can only survive in pure, cold water (i.e. Mount Fuji meltwater). Since 1990 the group succeeded in replanting the flower in different water streams in the city and have made a special pocket park featuring the flower.

13. In 1999, soon after the 1998 NPO law was passed the Mishima GW Action Committee attained NPO corporate status.

14. Koura was the first town that the Mishima Yusuikai group visited to learn about water related projects in October 1991, i.e. just after its foundation (Mishima Yusuikai, 2001).

15. GW UK visited Japan in April 2004 for the second review of the JGA and GW activities, this included Mishima.

16. A Trust committee was established in March 2004 as a step toward establishing the first GW Trust in Japan (JGA, 2004).

17. On reflection it is worthwhile noting that little research has been done on the different styles and practices adopted across the different UK GW Trusts (Banks & Shenton, 2001; Fordham et al., 2002). It is quite possible that a flexibilization of efforts under GW is endemic or intrinsic given the peculiarities of place, the characteristics of local regimes of governance and specific issues in play with different projects. As such comparing Japan GW is not least made difficult because too little is known about UK GW practice in any detail (cf. Fordham et al., 2002). Instead such differences are often masked by the organizational facade and marketing of national and international programmes that are necessitated by funding priorities and processes.