Constitutional monarchies and semi-constitutional monarchies: a global historical study, 1800–2017

Figures & data

Table 1. Democracies with a monarch as head of state 1800–2017.

Belgium 1894–1913, 18–39, 44–2017	Monaco 1962–2017
Bhutan 2009–2017	Nepal 1991–2001
Denmark 1901–2017	Netherlands 1888–1939, 45–2017
Greece 1864–1914, 1935, 1946–1966	Norway 1905–39, 45–2017
Italy 1919–1921	Spain 1977–2017
Japan 1952–2017	Sweden 1911–2017
Laos 1954–1958	Thailand 1975, 1983–90, 1992–2005, 2011–13
Lesotho 2002–2017	Tonga 2012–2017
Liechtenstein 1921–2017	United Kingdom 1885–2017
Luxembourg 1890–1913, 18–39, 44–2017	Yugoslavia 1921–1928

Table 2. Monarchical powers in democracies. V-dem database.

Monarchic powers	Cases	Sum
1.Monarch appoints cabinet^a	Monaco 1962–2017, Nepal 2000–01, Sweden 1911–16, Yugoslavia 1921–28	Cases: 72 Countries: 4
2.Relative power of monarch equals or is stronger than power of PM^b	Belgium 1918, 1959, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1944, Monaco 1962–2017, Netherlands 1945, Sweden 1911–16, Yugoslavia 1921–28	Cases:171 Countries: 7
3.Monarch dismisses ministers^c	Bhutan 2016, Greece 1864–1914, Laos 1954–58, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1944, Monaco 1962–2017, Nepal 1991–2001, Netherlands 1945, Sweden 1911–17, Thailand 1975, 1983–90, 92–2005, 2011–13, Yugoslavia 1921–28	Cases: 264 Countries: 11
4. Monarch can remove Prime Minister^d	Bhutan 2014–17, Greece 1864–1907, 1911–14, 1955–66, Laos 1954–58, Lesotho 2013–16, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1900–39, 44–2017, Monaco 1962–2017, Nepal 1991–2001, Spain 1977, Thailand 1975, 1983–90, 1992–2005, 2011–13, Yugoslavia 1921–28	Cases: 386 Countries: 11
5. Prime Minister appointed by monarch^e	Belgium 1894–1913, 1918–39, 1946–2017, Denmark 1901–42, 1945–2017, Greece 1864–99, 1935, 1946–66, Italy 1919–21, Japan 1952–2017, Luxembourg 1900–39, 1944–2017, Monaco 1962–2017, Nepal 1991–2001, Netherlands 1888–1939, 1945, Norway 1905–39, 1945–2017, Spain 1977–2017, Sweden 1911–75, United Kingdom 1885–2017, Yugoslavia 1921–28	Cases: 945 Countries: 14
6. Monarch in control over domestic policy^f	Bhutan 2009–17, Greece 1864–1914, 1935, 1950–66, Lesotho 2002–16, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1900–39, Monaco 1962–2017, Spain 1977, Thailand 1975, 1983–90, 92–2005, 2011–13	Cases: 313 Countries: 8
7. Monarch can dissolve legislature^g	Bhutan 2013–16, Greece 1874, 1946–66, Italy 1919–21, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1944, Monaco 1962–2017, Sweden 1911–16, Thailand 1975, 1983–90, 92–2005, 2011–13, Tonga 2012–2017, Yugoslavia 1921–28	Cases: 229 Countries: 10
8. Monarch has veto powers^h	Bhutan 2009–16, Greece 1864–1910, Italy 1919–21, Laos 1954–58, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1900–39, 44–2008, Monaco 1962–2017, Nepal 1991–2001, Netherlands 1945, Spain 1977, Thailand 1975, 1983–1990, 92–2005, 2011–13, Tonga 2012–2017, Yugoslavia 1921–1928	Cases: 374 Countries: 13
9. Monarch can introduce legislation^i	Bhutan 2009–17, Greece 1864–1914, 1935, 1946–66, Italy 1919–21, Laos 1954–58, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Monaco 1962–2017, Nepal 2000–01, Norway 1905–08, Sweden 1911–16, Yugoslavia 1921–28	Cases: 263 Countries: 10

^a HOS appoints cabinet in practice (C) (v2exdfcbhs, *_osp, *_ord).’ In practice, does the head of state have the power to appoint – or is the approval of the head of state necessary for the appointment of – cabinet ministers?’ Yes= Responses 3 or 4.

^b Relative power of the HOS (D) (v2ex_hosw). ‘Does the head of state (HOS) have more relative power than the head of government (HOG) over the appointment and dismissal of cabinet ministers?’ Strong monarch = 0.5 or 1.

^c HOS dismisses ministers in practice (C) (v2exdfdmhs, *_osp, *_ord). ‘If the head of state took actions to dismiss cabinet ministers, would he/she be likely to succeed?’ Yes = 2 or 3.

^d HOG appointment in practice (v2expathhg). ‘Is the head of government (HOG) appointed by the head of state (HOS)? If several bodies were involved in the appointment process, select the one that exerted the most critical impact on the decision’ (Yes = 6, head of state).

^e HOG removal by other in practice (C) (v2exrmhgnp). ‘Which of the following bodies would be likely to succeed in removing the head of government if it took actions (short of military force) to do so?’ (Yes = 5, head of state).

^f HOG control over (C) (v2exctlhg). ‘In practice, from which of the following bodies does the head of government customarily seek approval prior to making important decisions on domestic policy?’ (Yes = 5, head of state).

^g HOS dissolution in practice (C) (v2exdfdshs, *_osp, *_ord). ‘If the head of state took actions to dissolve the legislature, would he/she be likely to succeed?’ (Yes = responses 2 or 3).

^h HOS ‘veto power in practice’ (C) (v2exdfvths, *_osp, *_ord) (yes = responses 2, 3, 4).

ⁱ HOS ‘proposes legislation in practice’ (C) (v2exdfpphs, *_osp, *_ord) (yes = responses 0, 1).

Table 3. Combinations of monarchical powers in democracies 1800–2017. V-dem dataset.

EP*LP*DPP*DP	Bhutan 2014–16, Greece 1874, 1955–1966, Liechtenstein 1921-2017, Monaco 1962–2017, Thailand 1975, 1983–90, 1992–2005, 2011–13.	Cases: 195 Countries: 5
EP*LP* DPP	Bhutan 2014–17, Greece 1864–1914, 55–66, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1900–39, Monaco 1962–2017, Spain 1977, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13.	Cases: 288 Countries: 7
EP* LP* DP	Bhutan 2014–16, Greece 1874, 1955–1966, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1944, Monaco 1962–2017, Sweden 1911–16, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13, Yugoslavia 1921–28.	Cases: 210 Countries: 8
EP*DPP* DP	Bhutan 2014–16, Greece, 1874, 1955–66, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Monaco 1962–2017, Thailand 1975, 1983–90, 1992–2005, 11–13.	Cases:195 Countries: 5
LP*DPP* DP	Bhutan 2013–16, Greece 1874, 1955–1966, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Monaco 1962–2017, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13.	Cases:196 Countries: 5
EP*LP	Bhutan 2014–17, Greece 1864–1914, 55–66, Laos 1954–58, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1900–39, 44–2008, Monaco 1962–2017, Nepal 1991–2001, Netherlands 1945, Spain 1977, Sweden 1911–16, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13, Yugoslavia 1921–1928.	Cases:387 Countries: 12
EP*DPP	Bhutan 2014–17, Greece 1864–1914, 1955–1966, Lesotho 2013–2016, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1900–1939, Monaco 1962–2017, Spain 1977, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13.	Cases:291 Countries: 8
EP*DP	Bhutan 2014–16, Greece 1874, 1955–66, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1944, Monaco 1962–2017, Sweden 1911–16, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13, Yugoslavia 1921–28.	Cases:210 Countries: 8
LP*DPP	Bhutan 2009–17, Greece 1864–1914, 1935, 50–66, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1900–39, Monaco 1962–2017, Spain 1977, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13.	Cases:306 Countries: 7
LP*DP	Bhutan 2013–16, Greece 1874, 1946–66, Italy 1919–21, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1944, Monaco 1962–2017, Sweden 1911–16, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13, Tonga 2012–17, Yugoslavia 1921–28.	Cases: 229 Countries: 10
DPP*DP	Bhutan 2013–16, Greece 1874, 1950–66, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Monaco 1962–2017, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13.	Cases: 201 Countries: 5
EP	Belgium 1918, 1959, Bhutan 2014–17, Greece 1864–1914, 55–66, Laos 1954–58, Lesotho 2013–16, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1900–39, 44–2017, Monaco 1962–2017, Nepal 1991–2001, Netherlands 1945, Spain 1977, Sweden 1911–17, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13, Yugoslavia 1921–28.	Cases: 399 Countries: 14
LP	Bhutan 2009–17, Greece 1864–1914, 1935, 46–66, Italy 1919–21, Laos 1954–58, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1900–39, 44–2008, Monaco 1962–2017, Nepal 1991–2001, Netherlands 1945, Norway 1905–08, Spain 1977, Sweden 1911–16, Tonga 2012–17, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13, Yugoslavia 1921–28.	Cases: 411 Countries: 15
DPP	Bhutan 2009–17, Greece 1864–1914, 1935, 50–66, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Lesotho 2002–16, Luxembourg 1900–39, Monaco 1962–2017, Spain 1977, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13	Cases: 313 Countries: 8
DP	Bhutan 2013–16, Greece 1874, 1946–66, Italy 1919–21, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1944, Monaco 1962–2017, Sweden 1911–16, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 2011–13, Tonga 2012–17, Yugoslavia 1921–28.	Cases: 229 Countries: 10
None	Belgium 1900–13, 19–1939, 44–58, 60–2017, Denmark 1901–2017, Japan 1952–2017, Lesotho 2017, Netherlands 1888–1939, 1946–2017, Norway 1909–39, 1945–2017, Spain 1978–2017, Sweden 1918–2017, United Kingdom 1885–2017	Cases: 793 Countries: 9
Missing data	Belgium 1894–99, Luxembourg 1890–99	Cases: 16 Countries: 2

Note: EP = Executive powers; LP = Legislative powers; DPP = Domestic policy powers; DP = Dissolution powers.

Table 4. Patterns of emergence and consolidation of semi-constitutional monarchies 1800–2017.

Population	Previous regime
	Autocracy with monarch as head of state		Other autocracy		Democracy
	Outcome		Outcome		Outcome
	Democratic consolidation	Democratic breakdown	Democratic consolidation	Democratic breakdown	Democratic consolidation	Democratic breakdown
< 1 million	Bhutan 2009–17, Liechtenstein 1921–2017, Luxembourg 1900–2017^a, Monaco 1962–2017, Tonga 2012–17
1–3 millions	Lesotho 2002–16, Norway 1905–08	Laos 1954–58
> 3 millions	Spain 1977, Sweden 1911–17	Greece 1864–1914, Italy 1919–21, Nepal 1991–2001, Thailand 1975, 83–90, 92–2005, 11–13, Yugoslavia 1921–28		Greece 1944–66	Belgium 1918^a, 1959, Netherlands 1945^a	Greece 1935

^aDisregarding periods of occupation during WW1 and WW2.