Data Science in Military Decision-Making: Foci and Gaps

Figures & data

Table 1. Data extraction of selected literature.

Nr.	Data variable	Variable explanation
1	Title
2	Author(s)
3	Affiliation(s) of author(s)	Only affiliations mentioned in the respective article were recorded
4	Year of publication
5	Keywords
6	Journal
7	Journal categorisation (JC)	The journal in which an article is published is binary categorised as social (SO) or formal (FO). Since no articles were selected in the branch of natural sciences, this category is irrelevant for our study.
8	Research method (RM)	Articles were categorised as using either a qualitative (QL) or quantitative (QN) research method. In case mixed methods were used, the predominant method was recorded.
9	Focus (F)	Based on the full-text reading, an assessment was made to what extent the article is focused on risks (R) or opportunities (O) of data science. This was recorded in a binary manner.
10	Type of subject (T)	Articles were categorised as having a military (M) or non-military (NM) subject.
11	Level of war (L); if applicable	The articles with a military subject were additionally labelled as tactical, operational, strategic or general (in case no specific level of war applies), based on the level of war the article focuses on – explicitly or (in most cases) by our assessment.

Table 2. Categorisation of selected articles.

A. Categorisation of selected articles with qualitative research method in social science journals.
Journal categorisation (JC)	Research method (RM)	Focus regarding data science (F)	Type of subject (T): Military (M)				Type (T) Non-Military (NM)
			Level of war (L) General	Level of war (L) Strategic	Level of war (L) Operational	Level of war (L) Tactical
Social (SO)	Qualitative (QL)	Opportunities (O)	Dear (2019a); Ploumis (2022); Hoffman (2019)	Ayoub and Payne (2016); Payne (2018a); Lim (2016); Degaut (2016); Metz (2020)	S. I. Davis (2022)	Yan (2020); Wall (2021); Regens (2019); Eldridge, Hobbs, and Moran (2018); Kania (2019); Lawson and Barrons (2016); Dear (2019b)	Bodrožić and Adler (2022); Alaimo and Kallinikos (2022); Speigel (2021); Grønsund and Aanestad (2020); Günther et al. (2017); Tavakoli, Schlagwein, and Schoder (2017); Coombs et al. (2020); Jones (2019)
		Risks (R)	Goldfarb and Lindsay (2022); Martin (2019); Ganor (2021); Vogel et al. (2021); Krieg and Rickli (2018); Phillips and Pohl (2020); Lewis (2019); Umbrello, Torres, and Bellis (2020); Sari and Celik (2021); Amoroso and Tamburrini (2021)	Johnson (2020a); Fitzpatrick (2019); Yarhi-Milo (2013); Johnson (2020b); Onderco and Zutt (2021); Maas (2019); Johnson (2020c); Schneider (2019); M. C. Horowitz (2019); Altmann and Sauer (2017); Galliott (2017); Johnson (2019a); Horowitz, Kahn, and Mahoney (2020)	Melancon (2020); Sharkey (2010); Roff (2014)	Tóth et al. (2022); Warren and Hillas (2020); Roff and Danks (2018)	Pethig and Kroenung (2022); Sullivan and Wamba (2022); Martin and Waldman (2022); Telkamp and Anderson (2022); John–Mathews, Cardon, and Balagué (2022); Leicht-Deobald et al. (2019); Islam and Greenwood (2022); Holford (2020); Islam (2022); Saifer and Dacin (2021); Marjanovic and Cecez-Kecmanovic (2017); Arvidsson, Holmström, and Lyytinen (2014); Newell and Marabelli (2015); Marabelli, Newell, and Handunge (2021); Aversa, Cabantous, and Haefliger (2018)

B. Categorisation of selected articles with quantitative research method in social science journals.
Journal categorisation (JC)	Research method (RM)	Focus regarding data science (F)	Type of subject (T): Military (M)				Type (T) Non-Military (NM)
			Level of war (L) General	Level of war (L) Strategic	Level of war (L) Operational	Level of war (L) Tactical
Social (SO)	Quantitative (QN)	Opportunities (O)		Tappe and Doeser (2021); Frank (2017)			Nieto et al. (2019); Shrestha et al. (2021); Allen and Choudhury (2022); Ghasemaghaei, Ebrahimi, and Hassanein (2018)
		Risks (R)

C. Categorisation of selected articles with qualitative research method in formal science journals.
Journal categorisation (JC)	Research method (RM)	Focus regarding data science (F)	Type of subject (T): Military (M)				Type (T) Non-Military (NM)
			Level of war (L) General	Level of war (L) Strategic	Level of war (L) Operational	Level of war (L) Tactical
Formal (FO)	Qualitative (QL)	Opportunities (O)		Hipel and Fang (2021); Durst et al. (2015)		Frutos-Pascual and Zapirain (2017); Miller et al. (2021); Veldhuis, Reus, and Keijser (2020)	Phillips-Wren, Daly, and Burstein (2021); Luoma (2016); Durbach and Stewart (2012); Gutjahr and Nolz (2016); Wright et al. (2019); Marttunen, Lienert, and Belton (2017); Razmak and Aouni (2015); Konrad et al. (2017); Liesiö et al. (2021); Tedjopurnomo et al. (2022)
		Risks (R)	Omohundro (2014)				Westin, Borst, and Hilburn (2016); Constantiou, Shollo, and Vendelø (2019); R. Ormerod (2014); Ormerod and Ulrich (2013)

D. Categorisation of selected articles with quantitative research method in formal science journals, with a military subject.
Journal categorisation (JC)	Research method (RM)	Focus regarding data science (F)	Type of subject (T): Military (M)
			Level of war (L) General	Level of war (L) Strategic	Level of war (L) Operational	Level of war (L) Tactical
Formal (FO)	Quantitative (QN)	Opportunities (O)		Chen et al. (2020); Jaspersen and Montibeller (2020); Saaty and Zoffer (2012); Erspamer et al. (2022)	Caballero and Lunday (2020); Lobo et al. (2018); Ledwith, Hufstetler, and Gallagher (2021); Lin and Hung (2011); Srivastava, Meena, and Singh (2021)	Roponen, Insua, and Salo (2020); Ermağan, Yıldız, and Salman (2022); Margolis, Song, and Mason (2022); Berger et al. (2012); Mufalli, Batta, and Nagi (2012); Chen et al. (2017); Bhagat, Liou, and Chang (2016); Naeem and Masood (2010); Ferrari and Chen (2020); Semiz and Polat (2020); You et al. (2020); Li et al. (2022); Davis, Robbins, and Lunday (2017); Jenkins, Robbins, and Lunday (2021); Laan et al. (2020)
		Risks (R)

E. Categorisation of selected articles with quantitative research method in formal science journals, with a non-military subject.
Journal categorisation (JC)	Research method (RM)	Focus regarding data science (F)	Type (T) Non-Military (NM)
Formal (FO)	Quantitative (QN)	Opportunities (O)	Vemprala, Liu, and Choo (2021); Moskowitz et al. (2011); García-Fernández and Garijo (2010); Mora et al. (2012); Jafarzadeh et al. (2022); Laguir et al. (2022); Beraldi, Violi, and Simone (2011); Schätter et al. (2019); Kadar, Maculan, and Feuerriegel (2019); Ghasemaghaei (2019); Cavdur and Sebatli (2019); Pang and Pavlou (2019); Fertier et al. (2020); Kim, Park, and Suh (2020); Valencia-Parra et al. (2021); Bayrak et al. (2021); Moreira et al. (2021); (Verboven et al. (2021); Voorberg et al. (2021); Yuan et al. (2021); Sáenz-Royo, Salas-Fumás, and Lozano-Rojo (2022); Jabbari et al. (2022); Zhdanov, Bhattacharjee, and Bragin (2022); Álvarez-Miranda et al. (2018); He (2022); Frikha and Moalla (2015); Paul and Zhang (2021); Brandt, Wagner, and Neumann (2021); Vilkkumaa et al. (2018); Ferretti, Pluchinotta, and Tsoukiàs (2019); Yearsley and Busemeyer (2016); Sun et al. (2011); Caddell et al. (2020); Rocha, Dias, and Dimas (2013); Zeleny (2011); Bravo, Pla-Santamaria, and Garcia-Bernabeu (2010); Aouni, Abdelaziz, and Torre (2012); Ardil (2020)
		Risks (R)	Ghasemaghaei and Calic (2019); Nadj, Maedche, and Schieder (2020)

Figure 1. Division per level of war for articles with a military topic; [L | T = M].

Figure 2. Division per level of war for quantitative studies focused on opportunities of data science; [L | RM = QN & F = O].

Figure 3. (a) Division per level of war for qualitative studies focused on opportunities of data science; [L | RM = QL & F = O]. (b) Division per level of war for qualitative studies focussed on risks of data science; [L | RM = QL & F = R].

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