Policy differentiation and the politics of belonging in India’s emigrant and emigration policies

Figures & data

Table 1. Overview of social protection schemes (see MEA 2021a).

	Social Assistance	Labor Market Programs	Social Insurance
Pre-departure	Overseas Workers Resource Centre (OWRC) (2004) in Delhi, Chennai, Lucknow, Kochi and Hyderabad: Grievance registration Tracking of grievance Assistance for online Migration Clearance (e-Migrate) Toll-free 24 × 7 helpline support in various Indian languages	One-day pre-departure training (2018)
Destination Country	Indian Community Welfare Fund (Emergency Fund) (2009) Assisting in distress situations Support for Community Welfare activities Improvement in Consular services Pravasi Bharatiya Sahayata Kendra (PBSK) (2010) in Dubai and Sharjah (UAE), Riyadh and Jeddah (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia); Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) 24/7 helpline walk-in counter in Dubai and Sharjah, legal, psychological and financial counselling awareness campaigns in workers’ accommodation sites Online Grievances complaint form (MADAD) against Indian embassy services (2015)		Compulsory Insurance Scheme Pravasi Bharatiya Bima Yojana (PBBY)) (2003): Cover sum accidental death/permanent disability One-way ticket for rehabilitation in case of death or disability Medical treatment for migrant and their families in case of illness Maternity expenses Legal expenses related to employment abroad
Return			Voluntary Pension scheme (discontinued in 2017): Mahatma Gandhi Pravasi Suraksha Yojana (MGPSY) (2012)

Table 2. Symbolic policies (see MEA 2020, 2022a, 2022c).

		Citizenship status/Emigration category
Policy	Non-Resident Indians (Indian citizenship): Emigration Check Not Required (ECNR)	Non-Resident Indians (Indian citizenship): Emigration Check Required (ECR)	Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) (Citizenship of other countries) (2005)
Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Award (2003–2015) 179 Awards in total	4 (Bahrain) 2 (Kuwait) 6 (Oman) 3 (Qatar) 5 (Saudi Arabia) 11 (UAE)	0	32 (USA) 12 (UK) 5 (Canada) 4 (Australia)
Additional benefits			At Parity with NRIs for Inter-country child adoption Admittance into national parks, museums, national heritage, etc.

Table 3. Emigration regulations (see MEA 2016).

		Citizenship status/Emigration category
Policy	Non-Resident Indians (Indian citizenship): Emigration Check Not Required (ECNR)	Non-Resident Indians (Indian citizenship): Emigration Check Required (ECR)	Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) (Citizenship of other countries) (2005)
Emigration	No restrictions	Emigration clearance needed	No restrictions

Table 4. Citizenry rights (see MEA 2022a; Xavier 2011).

		Citizenship status/Emigration category
Policy	Non-Resident Indians (Indian citizenship): Emigration Check Not Required (ECNR) (1983)	Non-Resident Indians (Indian citizenship): Emigration Check Required (ECR) (1983)	Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) (Citizenship of other countries) (2005)
SocialProtection Policies (See Appendix Table 1) (Social rights)	Only Students (MADAD registration; Indian Community Welfare Fund) and Women (Indian Community Welfare Fund)	All	No
Economic rights	Full economic rights	Full economic rights	Full economic rights, but no acquisition of agricultural property
Political rights	Since 2010 voting rights, only in person in the home constituency	Since 2010 voting rights, only in person in the home constituency	No political rights: no right to vote, to stand for elections, or admission to public service
Work permit	Full access to labor market	Full access to labor market	Eligible for appointment as Teaching faculty in IITs, NITs, IIMs, IISERs, IISc, Central Universities, AIIMS Doctor, dentist, pharmacist, nurse, advocate, chartered account, architect In other sectors, the same rights and privileges as a foreigner
Educational rights	Access to all Higher Educational Institutions/Reserved seats for NRIs Scholarship program for Diaspora Children (2006)	Access to all Higher Educational Institutions/Reserved seats for NRIs Scholarship program for Diaspora Children (since 2017 reservation)	Access to all Higher Educational Institutions/at parity with NRIs for reserved seats Scholarship program for Diaspora Children (2006)

MEA (Ministry of External Affairs. Government of India). 2021a. “Consular Services.” Ministry of External Affairs. https://mea.gov.in/owrc-and-pbsk.htm

 Google Scholar

MEA (Ministry of External Affairs. Government of India). 2020. “Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Award.” Ministry of External Affairs. https://www.mea.gov.in/pravasi-bharatiya-samman.htm

 Google Scholar

MEA (Ministry of External Affairs. Government of India). 2022a. “Overseas Citizenship of India Scheme.” Ministry of External Affairs. https://www.mea.gov.in/overseas-citizenship-of-india-scheme.htm

 Google Scholar

MEA (Ministry of External Affairs. Government of India). 2022c. “Pravasi Bharatiya Divas.” Ministry of External Affairs. https://www.mea.gov.in/pravasi-bharatiya-divas.htm

 Google Scholar

MEA (Ministry of External Affairs. Government of India). 2016. “Protector General of Emigrants.” Ministry of External Affairs. https://mea.gov.in/protector-general-emigrants.htm

 Google Scholar

Xavier, C. 2011. “Experimenting with Diasporic Incorporation: The Overseas Citizenship of India.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 17 (1): 34–53. doi:10.1080/13537113.2011.550545.

 Google Scholar