Introduction: Arab responses to EU foreign and security policy incentives: Perspectives on migration diplomacy and institutionalized flexibility in the Arab Mediterranean turned upside down

Figures & data

Table 1. Historical changes & critical junctures; EU policies, incentives; Institutional responses, reforms, etc., of the Arab states; results

Algeria	Historical changes & critical junctures	Conflict with Morocco after independence (Sands War in 1963 and Battle of Amgala in 1976)	Algerian civil war during the 1990 s and terrorist attack in the US (9/11)	Arab upheavals in 2011 and crisis in Mali 2012	EU migration crisis (2015) and EU border closures (EU-Turkey deal 2016, control of the Libyan route 2017)
	EU policies; incentives	Cooperation through the Global Mediterranean Policy (1972–1992)	Cooperation under the Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement within the EMP and advanced cooperation through the ENP	Cooperation through the ENP Partnership Priorities, Migration Compact, Member States’ security support	Funding through the EU Emergency Trust Fund for Africa (EUTF), increased Funding for Security and Migration (ISF, AMIF), strengthened bilateral security cooperation Member States
	Institutional responses, reforms, etc.	Attempt to revive the Arab Maghreb Union. Institutional reform strengthening the role of the Army in the migration domain and in border control	Reform of the migration policy, criminalization of illegal migration, signature of international conventions, bilateral readmission agreements with Member States, EU Association Agreement including migration-related provisions (2005). Creation of a coordination cell run by the Joint Military Staff Committee in the southern part of the country	Substantial change in the laissez-faire approach to border control. Militarization of cross-border commercial routes	Returns of Nigerien and Malian nationals. Signature of the 2017 Partnership Priorities, endorsement of the EUTF during the Valletta Summit
	Results	No cooperation on migration issues.	No operationalization of cooperation on migration, limited readmission rates	Limited diplomatic relations and no cooperation on migration and border issues with the EU	U-turn on cooperation under the EUTF, no operationalization of cooperation on migration, refusal to let IOM supervise migrants’ repatriation to Niger, official rejection of cooperating with Frontex and to open regional disembarkation platforms
Egypt	Historical changes & critical junctures	January 2011: Begin Arab uprisings; February 2011: Removal H. Mubarak	3 July 2013: Removal Mohamed Morsi, reinstatement military regime	2014: Creation of NCCPIM	November 2016: IMF grant of 12 USD billion
	EU policies; incentives	2004: Association Agreement May 2011: Revised ENP strategy ‘A new response to a changing Neighbourhood’; invitation to Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia to launch a ‘Dialogue on Migration, Mobility and Security’	Balancing between normative claims and adaptation to factual reality	Financial support of committee through IOM; minimal criticism of military supremacy	Support of negotiations in IMF Board (EU Member States) Promotion of EU-Turkey Statement as ‘model’ for Egypt
	Institutional responses, reforms, etc.	Rejection of EU-proposed ‘Mobility Partnership’ by Egypt	Militarization of borders, esp. in Sinai	Elaboration of Anti-Smuggling Law (‘milestone’)	Improved surveillance of Egypt’s North coast
	Results	Migration cooperation remains minimal	Increase of irregular migrants in Egypt	November 2016: Anti-Smuggling Law	Tangible reduction of outgoing migration
Jordan	Historical changes & critical junctures	Arab uprisings and Syrian crisis starting 2011	2012-2014 Increasing number of refugees and migrants in Jordan	2014-2016 Need of further reforms making labour market work	2016-2019 Realization of probable long-term presence of Syrians
	EU policies; incentives	2002: Association Agreement; post-2011: Security cooperation, alliance against IS	Increasing focus on migration, signing of Mobility Partnership (2014)	Negotiating Jordan Compact (2016) followed by Brussels conferences	2017–2019 Annual Brussels conferences; EU accepts relaxed rules of origin
	Institutional responses, reforms etc.	Counterinsurgency, later focus on returning ‘foreign fighters’, anti-radicalization activities	Migration Partnership not legal framework for Syrian refugees; development of migration diplomacy	Adapting to EU incentives as part of trade-off related to labour market, special economic zones	Increasing attempts at implementing labour market measures, insisting on ‘Jordanian’ view
	Results	Security cooperation, only partly successful regarding anti-radicalization	Development of institutional flexibility contribute to resilience of Jordanian state	Jordan Compact & path dependence related to cooperation tend to prevent more negative scenarios	Partly unsuccessful measures and low economic growth result in problematic realities for Syrian refugees
Morocco	Historical changes & critical junctures	1999–2005 Spanish-Moroccan bilateral crisis including pressure on migration control through the EU (2001–2003)	2005–2011 Wave of migrant assaults on border fences of Ceuta and Melilla (2005)	2011–2015 Arab uprisings and short-term pacification of Western Mediterranean migration route (2012–2013)	2015–2019 Renewed salience of Western Mediterranean migration route. Morocco-EU bilateral crisis (2015–2019). Morocco’s accession to AU (2017)
	EU policies; incentives	Action Plan for Morocco on asylum and migration (1999). MEDA programme II (2000–2006). Demand for readmission agreement (2000-). SIVE surveillance system (2002) and Frontex (2004)	EU-Morocco ENP Action Plan (2005). Aeneas programme (2004–2008). EU-Morocco Advanced Status (2008)	EU invitation to Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia to launch a ‘Dialogue on Migration, Mobility and Security’ with ultimate aim of concluding Mobility Partnerships	Suggestions for North African regional disembarkation platforms (2018). Increased EU border management assistance
	Institutional responses, reforms, etc.	Discourse on ‘Global Approach to Migration and Mobility’ (2001–2011). Deputy Ministry for Moroccans Residing Abroad (2002). 2003 Immigration Law. Directorate for Migration and Border Surveillance (2003)	Euro-African Ministerial Conference on Migration and Development in Rabat (2006)	New Migration Policy (2013). Directorate of Migration Affairs (2013). 1st regularization process (2014). National Strategy on Immigration and Asylum (2015)	2nd regularization process (2017). AU leadership on migration affairs (2017-). Intergovernmental Conference on the Global Compact for Migration in Marrakech (2018). Increased crackdown on migrants (2018-)
	Results	Enhancement of border control practices and cooperation with EU/Spain, securitization. No readmission agreement	Effective cooperation on border control. Rabat Process as diplomatic success for Morocco. No readmission agreement	EU-Morocco Migration Partnership (2013); Launch of first genuine immigration policy in North Africa, but deferred legal development and implementation	Foreign policy role as ‘African champion of migration’. Implementation stalemate and contradictions of New Migration Policy