Impacts of cultural factors and mode of administration on item nonresponse for political questions in the European context

Figures & data

Table 1. The definitions of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.

Dimension	Low values or first alternative	High values or second alternative
Power Distance (PDI)	lower dependence on the executors of power	higher dependence on the more powerful people, tendency to be more authoritarian and conforming
Individualism vs Collectivism (IDV)	a norm of living independently and having own opinion, while the behavior is controlled only by the individual’s sense of guilt	protection of the interests of own social group and feeling of shame if a group member breaks any rules
Femininity vs Masculinity (FAM)	focus on consensus and equality, leftist political orientation with the custom of broader coalitions	focus on competitiveness, material rewards, heroism with strictly assigned gender roles, adversarial political discourse
Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI)	no need for predictability in the form of strict rules, higher activity, and self-efficacy in political life	stress from ambiguity, the importance of formal rules, and no toleration of deviations that could compromise their stability
Long-term vs Short-term orientation (LSO)	aim of receiving awards in the future and long-term success, even if it entails giving up short-term profit; social inequality is considered unacceptable	behavior directed at the past and present, such as respect for traditions, fulfilling social obligations, short-term success, quick results. In such countries, social stratification is considered normal.
Indulgence vs Restraint (IVR)	the ability to freely satisfy desires associated with pleasure; fulfilling the individual desires is regarded as proper	satisfaction should be strictly regulated by social norms; life is considered difficult, fun or enjoyment of life is discouraged, preference of duty over pleasure

Source: Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind, third edition (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional.

Table 2. Effect of mode and cultural variables on the INR of Q31: Political views of the respondent measured on the left-right scale; N = 48,546.

	M0: individual’s variables		M1: M0 + PDI		M2: M0 + UAI		M3: M0 + IDV
Fixed Effects	Coefficient	S.E.	Coefficient	S.E.	Coefficient	S.E.	Coefficient	S.E.
Intercept	2.287***	0.0924	3.326***	0.1119	3.793***	0.1325	1.388***	0.1055
CATI	2.354*	1.0333	1.889	1.0452	1.886	1.0227	2.069*	1.0263
MAIL	1.328***	0.1914	0.878***	0.1956	0.955***	0.1910	1.066***	0.1910
CAWI	2.692***	0.1964	2.246***	0.2006	2.239***	0.1966	2.389***	0.1962
PAPI	−0.519***	0.0393	−0.166***	0.0433	−0.328***	0.0400	−0.082	0.0459
CAPI	Ref.		Ref.		Ref.		Ref.
Female (Male ref.)	−0.285***	0.0379	−0.275***	0.0384	−0.288***	0.0376	−0.276***	0.0377
Age	0.007***	0.0011	0.006***	0.0011	0.007***	0.0011	0.006***	0.0011
Higher education	0.757***	0.0531	0.726***	0.0541	0.719***	0.0530	0.699***	0.0532
Middle education	0.354***	0.0459	0.359***	0.0467	0.346***	0.0457	0.350***	0.0458
Lower education	Ref.		Ref.		Ref.		Ref.
PDI			−0.017***	0.0009
UAI					−0.020***	0.0012
IDV							0.018***	0.0011
AIC	3,465		12,905		13,258		12,616
BIC	3,545		12,993		13,346		12,703
LOG	3,447		12,885		13,238		12,595
N	48,546		48,546		48,546		48,546

* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; Source: EVS 2017.

Table 3. Effect of mode and cultural variables on the INR of Q49: Which political party appeals to the respondent the most; N = 50,514.

	M4: individual variables		M5: M4 + PDI		M6: M4 + UAI		M7: M4 + IDV
Fixed Effects	Coefficient	S.E.	Coefficient	S.E.	Coefficient	S.E.	Coefficient	S.E.
Intercept	1.711***	0.0771	2.558***	0.0927	4.385***	0.1192	0.676***	0.0879
CATI	1.884**	0.6513	1.506*	0.6666	1.022	0.6403	1.540**	0.6485
MAIL	0.270**	0.0950	−0.100	0.0996	−0.412***	0.0970	−0.052	0.0959
CAWI	1.368***	0.0801	1.005***	0.0847	0.556***	0.0841	1.005***	0.0817
PAPI	−0.176***	0.0342	0.103**	0.0376	0.110***	0.0344	0.312***	0.0390
CAPI	Ref.		Ref.		Ref.		Ref.
Female (Male ref.)	−0.054	0.0304	−0.041	0.0313	−0.048	0.0303	−0.040	0.0305
Age	0.005***	0.0009	0.004***	0.0009	0.003***	0.0009	0.003***	0.0009
Higher education	0.076	0.0439	0.043	0.0452	−0.025	0.0442	0.006	0.0443
Middle education	−0.018	0.0406	−0.012	0.0418	−0.068	0.0407	−0.011	0.0409
Lower education	Ref.		Ref.		Ref.		Ref.
PDI			−0.014***	0.0007
UAI					−0.034***	0.0011
IDV							0.021***	0.0009
AIC	4,987		20,456		19,776		19,583
BIC	5,067		20,544		19,865		19,671
LOG	4,969		20,436		19,756		19,563
N	50,514		50,514		50,514		50,514

* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; Source: EVS 2017.