Intergenerational effects of further vocational training in Germany

Figures & data

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for selected covariates.

		Balancing descriptives^a
		Covariate means			Standardized difference in means
	Total sample distribution	Treated	Controls pre-balancing	Controls post- balancing	Pre-balancing	Post- balancing
Family status
Two parents, married	50%	reference category
Two parents cohabiting	9%	10%	9%	10%	0.037	0
Lone mothers	37%	35%	37%	35%	−0.062	0.001
Lone fathers	4%	4%	4%	4%	0.017	0
Mother’s vocational degree
No degree	42%	reference category
Vocational degree	44%	55%	44%	55%	0.225	0.001
University/ college degree	4%	7%	4%	7%	0.119	0
Missing	6%	4%	6%	4%	−0.114	0
Not applicable because lone father	4%	4%	4%	4%	0.017	0
Father’s vocational degree
No degree	21%	reference category
Vocational degree	37%	43%	36%	43%	0.14	0
University/ college degree	3%	6%	3%	6%	0.11	0
Missing	2%	2%	2%	2%	−0.012	0
Not applicable because lone mother	37%	35%	37%	35%	−0.062	0.001
Mother’s nationality
Not German	26%	reference category
German	70%	74%	70%	74%	0.104	0.001
Not applicable because lone father	4%	4%	4%	4%	0.017	0
Father’s nationality
Not German	21%	reference category
German	42%	48%	42%	48%	0.126	0
Not applicable because lone mother	37%	35%	37%	35%	−0.062	0.001
Mother: duration since last job
<6 months	18%	reference category
6–11 months	5%	7%	5%	7%	0.065	0
1 year	8%	9%	8%	9%	0.03	0
2–4 years	21%	21%	21%	21%	0.004	0
5–7 years	11%	9%	11%	9%	−0.059	0
8–15.5 years	8%	7%	8%	7%	−0.037	0
>15.5 years or never	25%	19%	25%	19%	−0.152	0
Not applicable because lone father	4%	4%	4%	4%	0.017	0
Father: duration since last job
<6 months	19%	reference category
6–11 months	4%	7%	4%	7%	0.115	0
1 year	6%	8%	6%	8%	0.094	0
2–4 years	15%	16%	15%	16%	0.025	0
5–15.5 years	13%	9%	13%	9%	−0.13	0
>15.5 years or never	6%	7%	6%	7%	0.042	0
Not applicable because lone mother	37%	35%	37%	35%	−0.062	0.001
N	190,173	3,514	186,659

^aComplete tables of means and variances for all covariates pre- and post-balancing are provided in the supplementary appendix. All covariates are listed in the Data and Methods section.

Table 2. Average Treatment Effects on the Treated (ATTs) in percentage points of parents’ further vocational training on children’s outcomes. Entropy balancing.

	Children’s outcomes at ages^a							N Treated	N Controls
	17	18	19	20	21	22	23
Age 14–17 at parents’ programme participation								3,514	186,659
Children’s outcomes:
Apprenticeship			1.9**	2.9***	2.5***
Regular employment			−0.8***	0.1	0.8
Pre-vocational training			1.0*	1.3**
Age 14–15 at parents’ programme participation								1,983	105,518
Children’s outcomes:
Apprenticeship	0.2	−0.1	2.1**	3.2***	2.5***
Regular employment	−0.1	−0.5**	−1.3***	−0.5	0.8
Pre-vocational training	0.3	0.6	1.8**	1.8***
Age 16–17 at parents’ programme participation								1,951	105,826
Children’s outcomes:
Apprenticeship			1.8*	2.6**	2.7***	1.7*	0.6
Regular employment			−0.3	0.8	1.0	1.0	1.8*
Pre-vocational training			0.2	1.2	0.9	0.8

*p < 0.10.

**p < 0.05.

***p < 0.01.

^aChildren’s apprenticeships and regular employment are measured at the time points of their birthdays for each of the ages given in the table. Children’s pre-vocational training participation is measured as any pre-vocational training participation within the year following each birthday.

Table 3. Mediation analysis. Mediated and direct effects of parents’ further vocational training participation on children’s outcomes. ATTs in percentage points.

	Children’s outcomes at ages^a							N treated	N controls
	17	18	19	20	21	22	23
Age 14–17 at parents’ programme participation								3,514	186,539
Children’s outcomes:
Apprenticeship
Average mediation			0.6***	0.7***	0.4***
Average direct effect			1.3*	2.3***	2.1***
Regular employment
Average mediation			0.0	0.3***	0.5***
Average direct effect			−0.9**	−0.1	0.3
Pre-vocational training
Average mediation			−0.4**	−0.3***
Average direct effect			1.4**	1.7***
Age 14–15 at parents’ programme participation								1,983	105,461
Children’s outcomes:
Apprenticeship
Average mediation	0.3***	0.7***	0.9***	0.9***	0.5***
Average direct effect	−0.1	−0.7	1.3	2.3**	2.1**
Regular employment
Average mediation	0.0	0.1**	0.1	0.2***	0.6***
Average direct effect	−0.1	−0.5**	−1.3***	−0.7	0.2
Pre-vocational training
Average mediation	−0.1*	−0.2**	−0.3***	−0.3***
Average direct effect	0.5	0.8	2.1***	2.1***
Age 16–17 at parents’ programme participation								1,951	105,749
Children’s outcomes:
Apprenticeship
Average mediation			0.4***	0.6***	0.4***	0.0	0.1
Average direct effect			1.3	2.0*	2.4**	1.8*	0.6
Regular employment
Average mediation			0.1	0.3***	0.6***	0.9***	1.2***
Average direct effect			−0.3	0.5	0.4	0.1	0.6
Pre-vocational training
Average mediation			−0.3***	−0.3***	−0.3***	−0.2**
Average direct effect			0.5	1.5*	1.2*	1.0*

*p < 0.10.

**p < 0.05.

***p < 0.01.

^aChildren’s apprenticeships and regular employment are measured at the time points of their birthdays for each of the ages given in the table. Children’s pre-vocational training participation is measured as any pre-vocational training participation within the year following each birthday.