Involuntary vs. voluntary flexible work: insights for scholars and stakeholders

Figures & data

Table 1. Sample means for outcomes and characteristics.

	Variable schedule			Remote work
	Stable	Voluntary	Involuntary	Low	Substantial voluntary	Substantial involuntary
Overall prevalence in sample (proportion)	0.784	0.127	0.090	0.545	0.311	0.144
Outcomes
Schedule variability
Voluntary variable schedule				0.090	0.195*	0.119
Stable schedule				0.833	0.703*	0.771
Involuntary variable schedule				0.077	0.102	0.110
Remote Work
Substantial voluntary remote work	0.279	0.479*	0.353
Low remote work	0.579	0.385*	0.471
Substantial involuntary remote work	0.141	0.135	0.176
Wellbeing and work attitude outcomes
Work-to-family conflict scale	3.008	3.231*	3.610*	3.103	2.997	3.246
Job satisfaction scale	3.967	4.163*	3.613*	3.888	4.093*	3.945
Turnover intentions scale	2.219	2.172	2.691*	2.344	2.076*	2.307
Emotional exhaustion (burnout) scale	4.211	4.035	5.020*	4.275	4.174	4.398
Perceived stress	8.530	8.219	9.485*	8.729	8.216*	8.780
Psychological distress	10.802	10.646	12.044*	10.965	10.576	11.312
Individual characteristics and family demands
Woman	0.392	0.375	0.324	0.337	0.462*	0.394
Married or partnered	0.798	0.771	0.779	0.816	0.784	0.725*
Has children age 5 or under at home	0.195	0.135	0.162	0.184	0.174	0.211
Has children age 6–18 at home	0.397	0.271*	0.338	0.383	0.335	0.440
Caregiver (at least 3 h of care per week for adult relative within the past 6 months)	0.221	0.229	0.368*	0.228	0.250	0.229
Age
Age 24–39	0.266	0.177	0.324	0.262	0.263	0.248
Age 40–49	0.380	0.302	0.294	0.368	0.326	0.422
Age 50–66	0.354	0.521*	0.382	0.370	0.411	0.330
Race/ethnicity
White, non-hispanic	0.668	0.729	0.706	0.644	0.758*	0.642
Asian or Pacific Islander	0.224	0.125*	0.235	0.254	0.131*	0.229
Other race/ethnicity (non-white, non-Asian)	0.108	0.146	0.059	0.102	0.110	0.128
Education
High school/some college	0.217	0.271	0.147	0.162	0.275*	0.303*
College degree	0.525	0.490	0.676*	0.591	0.470*	0.459*
Graduate degree	0.258	0.240	0.176	0.247	0.254	0.239
Respondent born in United States	0.717	0.844*	0.706	0.683	0.826*	0.716
Individual job demands and status
Work hours
Works 40 or fewer hours/week	0.338	0.167*	0.103*	0.281	0.301	0.339
Works 41–49 hours/week	0.411	0.448	0.353	0.477	0.352*	0.284*
Works 50 or More hours/week	0.251	0.385*	0.544*	0.242	0.347*	0.376*
Task interdependence	4.045	4.083	4.250*	4.131	3.992*	4.000
Psychological job demands	3.526	3.649	3.873*	3.592	3.545	3.560
Decision authority (subscale of job control)	3.765	4.167*	3.833	3.739	4.014*	3.719
Job Function
Analysts	0.128	0.146	0.118	0.138	0.127	0.101
Database administrators	0.037	0.094*	0.103*	0.024	0.089*	0.064*
Software developers	0.345	0.313	0.324	0.383	0.275*	0.312
Production support/operations	0.044	0.073	0.059	0.017	0.081*	0.101*
Project managers	0.157	0.156	0.191	0.157	0.174	0.138
Quality assurance	0.152	0.156	0.147	0.167	0.110*	0.183
System engineers/architects	0.138	0.063*	0.059	0.114	0.144	0.101
Higher job level (leads vs lower-level contributors)	0.596	0.542	0.632	0.632	0.581	0.468*
Ln(annual salary)	4.448	4.458	4.471	4.472	4.439*	4.396*
Organizational tenure in years	13.424	16.751*	13.045	12.764	15.883*	13.292
High job insecurity	0.338	0.333	0.441	0.324	0.369	0.385
Interviewed after merger announcement and geographic move	0.483	0.438	0.338*	0.416	0.568*	0.422

N = 758 employees. *indicates the mean for variable schedules (or substantial remote work) compared to stable schedules (or low remote work) is statistically different at a significance level of p < .05.

Table 2. Multilevel models of the relationship between flexible work practices and employee well-being.

	Work to family conflict				Job satisfaction
	Model 1		Model 2		Model 1		Model 2
	Coefficient	Standard error	Coefficient	Standard error	Coefficient	Standard error	Coefficient	Standard error
Flexible work practices
Variable schedule (stable schedule omitted)
Voluntary variable schedule	0.200*	(0.099)	0.211**	(0.082)	0.128	(0.084)	−0.052	(0.075)
Involuntary variable schedule	0.566***	(0.115)	0.239*	(0.095)	−0.365***	(0.098)	−0.355***	(0.087)
Remote work (less than 20% of work is remote omitted)
Substantial voluntary remote work	−0.100	(0.078)	−0.055	(0.064)	0.144*	(0.066)	0.061	(0.058)
Substantial involuntary remote work	0.119	(0.099)	0.103	(0.080)	0.043	(0.084)	0.079	(0.073)
Covariates
Woman			0.190**	(0.060)			−0.049	(0.054)
Married or partnered			0.039	(0.070)			0.083	(0.064)
Has children age 5 or under at home			0.113	(0.078)			−0.028	(0.071)
Has children age 6–18 at home			0.037	(0.058)			−0.017	(0.053)
Caregiver (at least 3 h of care per week for an adult relative within the last 6 months)			−0.032	(0.062)			0.068	(0.057)
Race/ethnicity (white, non-hispanic omitted)
Asian or Pacific Islander			0.110	(0.114)			0.064	(0.104)
Other race/ethnicity (non-white, non-Asian)			−0.165^+	(0.089)			0.177*	(0.081)
Education (college degree omitted)
High school/some college			−0.127	(0.077)			−0.010	(0.071)
Graduate degree			−0.053	(0.067)			0.090	(0.061)
Respondent born in United States			0.136	(0.104)			−0.058	(0.095)
Age (age 40–49 omitted)
Age 24–39			0.032	(0.076)			−0.081	(0.070)
Age 50–66			0.031	(0.068)			0.067	(0.063)
Work hours (41–49 h/Week omitted)
Works 40 or fewer hours/week			−0.247***	(0.067)			−0.007	(0.062)
Works 50 or more hours/week			0.394***	(0.066)			−0.063	(0.060)
Task interdependence			−0.020	(0.036)			0.064*	(0.033)
Psychological job demands			0.474***	(0.042)			−0.081*	(0.038)
Decision authority (subscale of job control)			−0.342***	(0.039)			0.516***	(0.036)
Job function (Software Developers omitted)
Analysts			−0.173^+	(0.094)			0.186*	(0.083)
Database administrators			0.294*	(0.140)			0.432***	(0.121)
Production support/operations			−0.044	(0.139)			−0.068	(0.124)
Project managers			−0.080	(0.089)			−0.072	(0.078)
Quality assurance			−0.089	(0.094)			0.163*	(0.082)
System engineers/architects			−0.041	(0.097)			0.108	(0.087)
Ln(annual salary)			0.220	(0.165)			−0.309*	(0.150)
Organizational tenure in years			−0.001	(0.004)			0.004	(0.003)
High job insecurity			0.073	(0.058)			−0.052	(0.053)
Interviewed after merger announcement and geographic move			−0.097	(0.063)			0.050	(0.055)
BIC	2036		1848		1786		1711

	Turnover intentions				Emotional exhaustion
	Model 1		Model 2		Model 1		Model 2
	Coefficient error	Standard	Coefficient	Standard error	Coefficient	Standard error	Coefficient	Standard error
Flexible work practices
Variable schedule (stable schedule omitted)
Voluntary variable schedule	0.015	(0.114)	0.209*	(0.105)	−0.196	(0.162)	−0.151	(0.138)
Involuntary variable schedule	0.502***	(0.132)	0.396**	(0.122)	0.799***	(0.188)	0.408*	(0.160)
Remote work (less than 20% of work is remote omitted)
Substantial voluntary remote work	−0.275**	(0.087)	−0.147^+	(0.081)	−0.047	(0.126)	0.012	(0.108)
Substantial involuntary remote work	−0.055	(0.112)	−0.064	(0.102)	0.047	(0.160)	0.075	(0.134)
Covariates
Woman			−0.125	(0.076)			0.137	(0.101)
Married or partnered			−0.114	(0.090)			−0.067	(0.118)
Has children age 5 or under at home			0.164	(0.100)			0.128	(0.131)
Has children age 6–18 at home			0.099	(0.075)			0.195*	(0.098)
Caregiver (at least 3 h of care per week for an adult relative in the last 6 months)			−0.005	(0.080)			−0.089	(0.105)
Race/ethnicity (white, non-hispanic omitted)
Asian or Pacific Islander			−0.062	(0.146)			−0.223	(0.192)
Other race/ethnicity (non-white, non-Asian)			0.022	(0.114)			−0.286^+	(0.150)
Education (college degree omitted)
High school/some college			−0.001	(0.099)			−0.076	(0.130)
Graduate degree			−0.075	(0.086)			−0.214^+	(0.112)
Respondent born in United States			0.132	(0.134)			0.382*	(0.176)
Age (age 40–49 omitted)
Age 24–39			0.154	(0.098)			0.051	(0.128)
Age 50–66			−0.119	(0.088)			0.027	(0.116)
Work hours (41–49 hours/week omitted)
Works 40 or fewer hours/week			−0.095	(0.086)			−0.078	(0.114)
Works 50 or more hours/week			0.138	(0.085)			0.296**	(0.111)
Task interdependence			−0.009	(0.046)			0.035	(0.060)
Psychological job demands			0.043	(0.053)			0.824***	(0.070)
Decision authority (subscale of job control)			−0.473***	(0.050)			−0.545***	(0.066)
Job function (software developers omitted)
Analysts			−0.001	(0.115)			−0.097	(0.154)
Database administrators			−0.081	(0.165)			−0.134	(0.226)
Production support/operations			0.045	(0.171)			0.138	(0.230)
Project managers			−0.013	(0.108)			0.054	(0.146)
Quality assurance			−0.241*	(0.111)			−0.362*	(0.153)
System engineers/architects			−0.240*	(0.120)			−0.061	(0.161)
Ln(annual salary)			0.578**	(0.210)			0.310	(0.277)
Organizational tenure in years			−0.019***	(0.005)			−0.000	(0.006)
High job insecurity			0.257***	(0.074)			0.076	(0.098)
Interviewed after merger announcement and geographic move			0.163*	(0.075)			−0.171^+	(0.102)
BIC	2239	2225		2774			2639

	Perceived stress				Psychological distress
	Model 1		Model 2		Model 1		Model 2
	Coefficient	Standard error	Coefficient	Standard error	Coefficient	Standard error	Coefficient	Standard error
Flexible work practices
Variable Schedule (stable schedule omitted)
Voluntary variable schedule	−0.218	(0.293)	0.240	(0.278)	−0.057	(0.356)	0.366	(0.333)
Involuntary variable schedule	0.973**	(0.339)	0.747*	(0.324)	1.270**	(0.411)	0.722^+	(0.387)
Remote work (less than 20% of work is remote omitted)
Substantial voluntary remote work	−0.443*	(0.223)	−0.362^+	(0.218)	−0.396	(0.266)	−0.277	(0.258)
Substantial involuntary remote work	0.049	(0.288)	−0.140	(0.272)	0.311	(0.346)	0.017	(0.323)
Covariates
Woman			0.567**	(0.203)			0.710**	(0.243)
Married or partnered			−0.270	(0.237)			−0.870**	(0.285)
Has children age 5 or under at home			0.182	(0.265)			0.086	(0.316)
Has children age 6–18 at home			0.606**	(0.198)			0.307	(0.238)
Caregiver (at least 3 h of care per week for an adult relative in the last 6 months)			0.251	(0.212)			0.529*	(0.255)
Race/ethnicity (White, Non-Hispanic omitted)
Asian or Pacific Islander			−0.153	(0.390)			0.694	(0.464)
Other race/ethnicity (non-white, non-Asian)			−1.196***	(0.303)			−0.819*	(0.362)
Education (college degree omitted)
High school/some college			0.310	(0.263)			0.178	(0.315)
Graduate degree			−0.010	(0.227)			−0.325	(0.272)
Respondent Born in United States			−0.536	(0.356)			−0.150	(0.425)
Age (age 40–49 omitted)
Age 24–39			0.401	(0.259)			0.334	(0.310)
Age 50–66			0.042	(0.233)			−0.333	(0.280)
Work hours (41–49 hours/Week omitted)
Works 40 or fewer hours/week			0.215	(0.230)			0.412	(0.274)
Works 50 or more hours/week			0.457*	(0.225)			0.878**	(0.268)
Task interdependence			−0.258*	(0.122)			−0.106	(0.145)
Psychological job demands			0.698***	(0.141)			0.859***	(0.168)
Decision authority (subscale of job control)			−0.840***	(0.134)			−0.904***	(0.160)
Job function (Software developers omitted)
Analysts			0.258	(0.317)			0.410	(0.363)
Database administrators			−0.405	(0.471)			−0.355	(0.522)
Production support/operations			−0.062	(0.471)			0.454	(0.543)
Project managers			0.042	(0.300)			0.463	(0.342)
Quality assurance			−0.333	(0.317)			0.070	(0.353)
System engineers/architects			0.686*	(0.330)			0.866*	(0.381)
Ln(annual salary)			−0.143	(0.562)			0.237	(0.666)
Organizational tenure in years			0.005	(0.013)			0.003	(0.015)
High job insecurity			0.376^+	(0.198)			0.742**	(0.236)
Interviewed after merger announcement and geographic move			−0.330	(0.211)			−0.424^+	(0.239)
BIC	3668		3706		3962		3976

***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05, ⁺p < 0.1. N = 758 employees.

Table

Scale	Source	Variable description	Cronbach’s alpha	Range
Work-to-family conflict	Netemeyer, Boles, & McMurrian, 1996	The demands of your work interfere with your family or personal time. The amount of time your job takes up makes it difficult to fulfill your family or personal responsibilities. Things you want to do at home do not get done because of the demands your job puts on you. Your job produces strain that makes it difficult to fulfill your family or personal duties. Due to your work-related duties, you have to make changes to your plans for family or personal activities. Response Choices (reversed): 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree	0.92	1–5
Job satisfaction	Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins, & Klesh, 1983	In general, you like working at your job. In general, you are satisfied with your job You are generally satisfied with the kind of work you do in this job. Response Choices (reversed): 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree	0.86	1–5
Turnover intentions	Boroff & Lewin, 1997	You are seriously considering quitting [company name] for another employer. During the next 12 months, you will probably look for a new job outside [company name]. Response Choices (reversed): 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree	0.87	1–5
Burnout (Emotional exhaustion)	Maslach & Jackson, 1986	You feel emotionally drained from your work. How often do you feel this way? You feel burned out by your work. How often do you feel this way? You feel used up at the end of the workday. How often do you feel this way? Response Choices (reversed): 1 = Never, 2 = A few times a year or less, 3 = Once a month or less, 4 = A few times a month, 5 = Once a week, 6 = A few times a week, 7 = Every day	0.89	1–7
Perceived stress	Cohen, Kamarck & Mermelstein, 1983	During the past 30 days, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life? During the past 30 days, how often have you felt confident about your ability to handle your personal problems? During the past 30 days, how often have you felt that things were going your way? During the past 30 days, how often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you could not overcome them? Response Choices (not reversed): 1 = Very often, 2 = Fairly often, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Almost never, 5 = Never	0.76	4–20
Psychological distress	Kessler et al., 2003	During the past 30 days, how much of the time did you feel so sad nothing could cheer you up? During the past 30 days, how much of the time did you feel nervous? During the past 30 days, how much of the time did you feel restless or fidgety? During the past 30 days, how much of the time did you feel hopeless? During the past 30 days, how much of the time did you feel that everything was an effort? During the past 30 days, how much of the time did you feel worthless? Response Choices (reversed): 1 = None of the time, 2 = A little of the time, 3 = Some of the time, 4 = Most of the time, 5 = All of the time	0.76	6–30
Adult care		During the past 6 months have you provided at least 3 hours of care per week to an adult relative inside or outside your home? This could include help with shopping, medical care, or assistance in financial/budget planning. No/Yes		0–1
Task interdependence		How often does your job require you to work closely with others when doing your work? Response Choices: 1 = Never, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Some of the time, 4 = Most of the time, 5 = All of the time		1–5
Psychological job demands scale	Karasek et al., 1998	You do not have enough time to get your job done. Your job requires very fast work. Your job requires very hard work. Response Choices (reversed): 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Disagree	0.576	1–5
Job control scale (Decision authority)	Karasek et al., 1998	Your job allows you to make a lot of decisions on your own. On your job, you have very little freedom to decide how you do your work. You have a lot of say about what happens on your job. Response Choices (not reversed): 1 = Strongly Agree, 2 = Agree, 3 = Neither, 4 = Disagree, 5 = Strongly Disagree	0.718	1–5
Job insecurity		Thinking about the next 12 months, how likely do you think it is that you will lose your job or be laid off? Response Choices: 1 = Very Likely, 2 = Fairly Likely, 3 = Not too likely, 4 = Not at all likely (1 or 2  = ‘High Job Insecurity’)		1–4

Table

		1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
1	Voluntary Variable Schedule	1
2	Stable Schedule	−0.7247*	1
3	Involuntary Variable Schedule	−0.1195*	−0.5974*	1
4	Substantial Voluntary Remote Work	0.1380*	−0.1310*	0.0282	1
5	Low Remote Work	−0.1219*	0.1310*	−0.0468	−0.7357*	1
6	Substantial Involuntary Remote Work	−0.0091	−0.0129	0.0292	−0.2756*	−0.4484*	1
7	Work-to-Family Conflict Scale	0.057	−0.1665*	0.1735*	−0.0667	0.0143	0.0677	1
8	Job Satisfaction Scale	0.0985*	0.0167	−0.1387*	0.1140*	−0.1005*	−0.0078	−0.3479*	1
9	Turnover Intentions Scale	−0.0303	−0.0662	0.1307*	−0.1149*	0.0925*	0.0204	0.2905*	−0.5548*	1
10	Emotional Exhaustion (Burnout) Scale	−0.0572	−0.0634	0.1579*	−0.039	0.0102	0.037	0.6027*	−0.4123*	0.2845*	1
11	Perceived Stress	−0.051	−0.0329	0.1068*	−0.0907*	0.0624	0.0312	0.3790*	−0.3945*	0.2587*	0.4187*	1
12	Psychological Distress	−0.0292	−0.054	0.1118*	−0.066	0.024	0.053	0.3665*	−0.3506*	0.2596*	0.4507*	0.6718*	1
13	Woman	−0.007	0.0327	−0.039	0.1078*	−0.1065*	0.0089	0.0995*	0.0185	0.0927*	0.1085*	0.1018*	0.1438*
14	Married or Partnered	−0.0207	0.024	−0.0104	−0.0149	0.0624	−0.0689	0.018	0.0527	−0.02	−0.0165	−0.0323	−0.1125*
15	Has Children Age 5 or Under at Home	−0.0484	0.0519	−0.0186	−0.019	−0.0019	0.0278	0.0172	−0.0334	0.1128*	−0.0351	0.0398	0.0087
16	Has Children Age 6–18 at Home	−0.0827*	0.0838*	−0.0245	−0.0573	0.0149	0.0545	0.0447	−0.0309	0.0722*	0.0624	0.1159*	0.0528
17	Caregiver (at least 3 h of care per week for adult relative within the last 6 months)	−0.0051	−0.0642	0.0984*	0.0241	−0.0187	−0.0053	0.0354	0.0203	0.0121	0.0052	0.0692	0.1078*
18	Age 24–39	−0.0719*	0.0265	0.0455	0.0043	0.004	−0.0114	0	−0.0783*	0.1184*	−0.0368	0.0647	0.0739*
19	Age 40–49	−0.0481	0.07	−0.0448	−0.0511	0.0119	0.0505	0.0109	−0.0314	0.0571	0.027	0.0107	0.0342
20	Age 50–66	0.1128*	−0.0933*	0.0033	0.0468	−0.0155	−0.0398	−0.0108	0.1020*	−0.1638*	0.0065	−0.0692	−0.1007*
21	White, Non-Hispanic	0.0406	−0.0451	0.0178	0.1139*	−0.0829*	−0.0327	0.0642	−0.0278	−0.0296	0.1889*	0.0181	−0.0387
22	Asian or Pacific Islander	−0.0814*	0.0535	0.0176	−0.1332*	0.1119*	0.017	−0.0046	−0.042	0.0736*	−0.1619*	0.0811*	0.1033*
23	Other Race/Ethnicity (non-white, non-Asian)	0.0462	−0.0027	−0.0499	0.0043	−0.0228	0.0267	−0.0904*	0.0970*	−0.0525	−0.0706	−0.1340*	−0.0779*
24	High School/Some College	0.0491	−0.0023	−0.0537	0.0941*	−0.1470*	0.0845*	−0.0908*	0.0662	−0.1209*	0.0005	−0.0049	0.0144
25	College Degree	−0.0341	−0.0345	0.0895*	−0.0862*	0.1239*	−0.0621	0.0813*	−0.1093*	0.1000*	0.0764*	0.0104	0.023
26	Graduate Degree	−0.0074	0.0421	−0.052	0.0097	−0.0027	−0.009	−0.0071	0.0629	0	−0.0887*	−0.0073	−0.0403
27	Respondent Born in United States	0.0959*	−0.0645	−0.0187	0.1429*	−0.1220*	−0.0154	0.0176	0.0261	−0.0602	0.1719*	−0.0825*	−0.0811*
28	Works 40 or Fewer Hours/Week	−0.1075*	0.1788*	−0.1325*	0.0079	−0.0351	0.0395	−0.3407*	0.0624	−0.0944*	−0.2278*	−0.0413	−0.0574
29	Works 41–49 hours/Week	0.0291	0.0019	−0.0366	−0.0801*	0.1484*	−0.1049*	−0.028	0.0174	−0.0125	0.0019	−0.0746*	−0.1092*
30	Works 50 or More Hours/Week	0.0762*	−0.1811*	0.1722*	0.0786*	−0.1250*	0.0737*	0.3713*	−0.0813*	0.1080*	0.2260*	0.1219*	0.1753*
31	Task Interdependence	0.0071	−0.0559	0.0723*	−0.0658	0.0863*	−0.0357	0.1225*	−0.0027	0.0571	0.1344*	0.0245	0.0839*
32	Psychological Job Demands	0.0408	−0.1247*	0.1322*	−0.0263	0.0299	−0.0077	0.4992*	−0.1425*	0.0947*	0.4964*	0.2251*	0.2436*
33	Decision Authority (subscale of Job Control)	0.1870*	−0.1546*	0.0051	0.1841*	−0.1287*	−0.0603	−0.2847*	0.4933*	−0.3529*	−0.2866*	−0.2677*	−0.2597*
34	Analysts	0.0188	−0.0076	−0.0109	−0.0043	0.0285	−0.0347	−0.037	0.0613	−0.0038	0.0289	0.0302	0.0188
35	Database Administrators	0.0761*	−0.1142*	0.0760*	0.1197*	−0.1300*	0.0265	0.0782*	0.1169*	−0.0242	−0.0238	−0.0451	−0.0523
36	Software Developers	−0.0214	0.0244	−0.0103	−0.0904*	0.1006*	−0.0235	0.018	−0.0806*	0.0795*	−0.015	0.0009	−0.0558
37	Production Support/Operations	0.0426	−0.0445	0.0146	0.0989*	−0.1618*	0.0991*	−0.0543	0.0115	−0.026	−0.0041	−0.0535	−0.0323
38	Project Managers	−0.0035	−0.0159	0.027	0.0259	−0.0067	−0.0246	0.0768*	−0.1520*	0.0915*	0.1164*	0.0516	0.1080*
39	Quality Assurance	0.0048	−0.0011	−0.0041	−0.0779*	0.0468	0.0363	−0.0422	0.0746*	−0.1312*	−0.0952*	−0.0445	−0.0118
40	System Engineers/Architects	−0.0687	0.0972*	−0.0601	0.0467	−0.0254	−0.0257	−0.0443	0.0566	−0.0366	−0.0153	0.0241	0.0097
41	Higher Job Level (Leads vs Lower-Level Contributors)	−0.0393	0.014	0.0256	−0.0162	0.0882*	−0.1038*	0.1291*	−0.0639	0.0971*	0.1401*	−0.028	−0.0198
42	Ln(Annual Salary)	0.0129	−0.0323	0.0315	−0.0402	0.1183*	−0.1147*	0.1683*	−0.0441	0.0985*	0.1160*	0.0062	−0.0187
43	Organizational Tenure in Years	0.1212*	−0.0798*	−0.026	0.1508*	−0.1240*	−0.023	−0.0126	0.1428*	−0.2393*	0.0274	−0.0529	−0.0554
44	Interviewed after Merger Announcement and Geographic Move	−0.0205	0.0717*	−0.0794*	0.1394*	−0.1051*	−0.0348	−0.1243*	0.0687	0.0357	−0.0958*	−0.0604	−0.0419
45	High Job Insecurity	−0.0109	−0.0343	0.0621	0.0306	−0.0517	0.033	0.059	−0.0628	0.1359*	0.0716*	0.0730*	0.1260*

Table

		13	14	15	16	17	18	19	20	21	22	23	24
13	Woman	1
14	Married or Partnered	−0.1990*	1
15	Has Children Age 5 or Under at Home	−0.1380*	0.2265*	1
16	Has Children Age 6–18 at Home	0.0201	0.2018*	0.1219*	1
17	Caregiver (at least 3 h of care per week for adult relative in the last 6 months)	0.0810*	−0.0087	−0.0231	−0.0381	1
18	Age 24–39	−0.0843*	−0.0386	0.3768*	−0.0315	−0.0799*	1
19	Age 40–49	0.0363	0.0674	−0.0197	0.3036*	0.0416	−0.4471*	1
20	Age 50–66	0.0403	−0.032	−0.3214*	−0.2727*	0.0311	−0.4613*	−0.5874*	1
21	White, Non-Hispanic	0.0191	−0.0232	−0.2121*	−0.1087*	−0.0329	−0.2439*	−0.0049	0.2256*	1
22	Asian or Pacific Islander	−0.1513*	0.0664	0.2599*	0.1230*	0.0471	0.3248*	−0.0095	−0.2845*	−0.7560*	1
23	Other Race/Ethnicity (non-white, non-Asian)	0.1705*	−0.0526	−0.0235	0.0015	−0.0126	−0.0611	0.0199	0.0356	−0.5070*	−0.1809*	1
24	High School/Some College	0.2015*	−0.0854*	−0.1440*	−0.0927*	0.0321	−0.1668*	−0.019	0.1698*	0.0815*	−0.2505*	0.2074*	1
25	College Degree	−0.0896*	0.0449	0.0422	0.0203	−0.0693	0.1311*	−0.0161	−0.1026*	0.0954*	−0.0131	−0.1261*	−0.5650*
26	Graduate Degree	−0.0890*	0.0297	0.0888*	0.065	0.0494	0.0079	0.0368	−0.0437	−0.1881*	0.2545*	−0.0525	−0.3029*
27	Respondent Born in United States	0.1405*	−0.0739*	−0.2726*	−0.1149*	−0.0656	−0.2937*	−0.0022	0.2679*	0.6443*	−0.8150*	0.1051*	0.2974*
28	Works 40 or Fewer Hours/Week	−0.0059	−0.0114	0.1239*	0.0345	−0.0041	0.0645	−0.0016	−0.0568	−0.1251*	0.1302*	0.0165	0.0717*
29	Works 41–49 h/Week	−0.0022	−0.0502	−0.0929*	−0.0661	−0.0382	−0.0907*	0.0009	0.0811*	0.1419*	−0.1578*	−0.0056	−0.024
30	Works 50 or More Hours/Week	0.0083	0.0656	−0.0238	0.0368	0.0453	0.0333	0.0006	−0.0307	−0.028	0.0399	−0.0105	−0.0459
31	Task Interdependence	0.0724*	0.0238	−0.0328	−0.0088	0.0940*	0.0133	0.0144	−0.0263	0.0024	0.0367	−0.0519	0.0149
32	Psychological Job Demands	0.1560*	−0.0078	−0.0648	0.0167	0.0481	−0.0545	0.0235	0.026	0.1612*	−0.1538*	−0.0397	0.029
33	Decision Authority (subscale of Job Control)	−0.0316	0.045	−0.0358	−0.0126	−0.0516	−0.0311	−0.0431	0.0708	0.0727*	−0.1286*	0.0601	0.0488
34	Analysts	0.1243*	0.0223	−0.0821*	−0.0393	0.0277	−0.049	0.0036	0.0408	0.1299*	−0.1424*	−0.0076	0.0731*
35	Database Administrators	−0.0695	−0.0616	−0.0159	−0.0535	0.0724*	−0.0534	−0.0476	0.0956*	0.0153	−0.0011	−0.0216	−0.0333
36	Software Developers	−0.1757*	0.0910*	0.1762*	0.1114*	−0.0352	0.0522	0.0508	−0.0976*	−0.1290*	0.2072*	−0.0790*	−0.1752*
37	Production Support/Operations	−0.0278	0.01	−0.0447	−0.0494	−0.0244	−0.0086	0.0201	−0.0121	−0.0018	−0.0877*	0.1182*	0.0734*
38	Project Managers	0.1077*	−0.1061*	−0.1053*	−0.0186	0.039	0.0538	−0.0442	−0.0049	−0.0402	0.0291	0.0222	−0.003
39	Quality Assurance	0.1501*	−0.0198	−0.0023	−0.0474	−0.0174	−0.0242	0.0174	0.0046	−0.0404	−0.0308	0.1013*	0.1245*
40	System Engineers/Architects	−0.0940*	0.0205	−0.0103	0.0201	−0.0343	−0.0176	−0.0284	0.0441	0.1341*	−0.0942*	−0.0774*	0.0193
41	Higher Job Level (Leads vs Lower-Level Contributors)	−0.0076	0.0994*	0.0212	0.062	0.0099	−0.1022*	0.0229	0.0697	0.0859*	−0.0287	−0.0914*	−0.0894*
42	Ln(Annual Salary)	−0.1553*	0.1467*	−0.0105	0.053	0.0029	−0.2265*	0.0471	0.1582*	0.1036*	−0.0253	−0.1222*	−0.2048*
43	Organizational Tenure in Years	0.1992*	0.0423	−0.2291*	−0.1482*	0.0736*	−0.3713*	−0.1465*	0.4813*	0.1867*	−0.3295*	0.1533*	0.4501*
44	Interviewed after Merger Announcement and Geographic Move	0.0156	−0.0332	0.0135	−0.0347	0.0645	−0.021	−0.0204	0.0392	0.0388	−0.0049	−0.0518	0.0729*
45	High Job Insecurity	0.0572	−0.0036	−0.0541	−0.0222	0.0866*	−0.1792*	0.0783*	0.0844*	−0.0041	−0.0736*	0.1030*	0.1595*

Table

		25	26	27	28	29	30	31	32	33	34	35	36
25	College Degree	1
26	Graduate Degree	−0.6152*	1
27	Respondent Born in United States	−0.0211	−0.2597*	1
28	Works 40 or Fewer Hours/Week	−0.0793*	0.0231	−0.1111*	1
29	Works 41–49 h/Week	−0.017	0.0426	0.1592*	−0.5402*	1
30	Works 50 or More Hours/Week	0.0978*	−0.0691	−0.0607	−0.4181*	−0.5385*	1
31	Task Interdependence	−0.0597	0.0547	−0.057	−0.1702*	0.0091	0.1606*	1
32	Psychological Job Demands	−0.0448	0.0241	0.1437*	−0.3225*	0.0596	0.2586*	0.2421*	1
33	Decision Authority (subscale of Job Control)	−0.0422	0.0021	0.1083*	−0.021	0.0295	−0.0108	−0.0248	−0.0724*	1
34	Analysts	−0.0186	−0.0483	0.1443*	−0.0255	0.0383	−0.0158	0.0812*	0.0323	0.0044	1
35	Database Administrators	−0.0522	0.0920*	−0.0112	0.0235	−0.0196	−0.0024	−0.1581*	0.0048	0.0468	−0.0885*	1
36	Software Developers	0.1156*	0.0339	−0.1899*	0.0492	−0.0365	−0.0098	−0.0624	−0.0872*	−0.0128	−0.2760*	−0.1645*	1
37	Production Support/Operations	−0.0954*	0.04	0.0955*	0.0277	0.0226	−0.0522	−0.0897*	−0.0275	0.0778*	−0.0873*	−0.052	−0.1622*
38	Project Managers	0.0386	−0.0418	−0.0211	−0.0928*	0.0026	0.0901*	0.1221*	0.1097*	−0.1425*	−0.1679*	−0.1001*	−0.3122*
39	Quality Assurance	−0.0549	−0.0555	0.0066	0.0404	−0.0163	−0.0229	−0.0275	−0.0063	0.0147	−0.1630*	−0.0972*	−0.3029*
40	System Engineers/Architects	−0.0337	0.0204	0.0879*	−0.0194	0.0267	−0.0095	0.0651	−0.0079	0.0751*	−0.1432*	−0.0854*	−0.2662*
41	Higher Job Level (Leads vs Lower-Level Contributors)	−0.0264	0.1159*	−0.0046	−0.1629*	0.0698	0.0878*	0.1336*	0.1612*	0.0674	−0.0004	0.0552	−0.0013
42	Ln(Annual Salary)	0.026	0.1656*	−0.011	−0.2421*	0.1067*	0.1273*	0.1290*	0.1578*	0.0339	−0.0742*	0.1120*	0.2048*
43	Organizational Tenure in Years	−0.2115*	−0.1858*	0.3541*	−0.063	0.0225	0.0388	0.0005	0.0941*	0.1540*	0.0711	0.0532	−0.0773*
44	Interviewed after Merger Announcement and Geographic Move	−0.0958*	0.041	0.0374	0.1158*	−0.0453	−0.0671	0.0902*	−0.0708	0.0478	−0.0513	−0.02	−0.1305*
45	High Job Insecurity	−0.0973*	−0.04	0.0966*	−0.0165	0.0062	0.0099	0.0913*	0.0492	−0.1098*	0.0165	−0.0404	−0.0830*

Table

		37	38	39	40	41	42	43	44	45
37	Production Support/Operations	1
38	Project Managers	−0.0987*	1
39	Quality Assurance	−0.0958*	−0.1843*	1
40	System Engineers/Architects	−0.0842*	−0.1620*	−0.1572*	1
41	Higher Job Level (Leads vs Lower-Level Contributors)	−0.0613	0.0757*	−0.2030*	0.1439*	1
42	Ln(Annual Salary)	−0.1744*	−0.0632	−0.2735*	0.1910*	0.6299*	1
43	Organizational Tenure in Years	0.0012	−0.0575	0.0581	0.0033	0.0712	0.0829*	1
44	Interviewed after Merger Announcement and Geographic Move	−0.0636	0.0925*	−0.1283*	0.3344*	0.1211*	0.0731*	0.0636	1
45	High Job Insecurity	0.0278	0.0455	−0.007	0.0686	−0.0439	−0.0212	0.0990*	0.2049*	1

Netemeyer, R. G., Boles, J. S., & McMurrian, R. (1996). Development and validation of work-family conflict and family-work conflict scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 400–410.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Cammann, C., Fichman, M., Jenkins, G. D., & Klesh, J. (1983). Michigan organizational assessment questionnaire. In S. E. Seashore, E. E. Lawler, P. H. Mirvis, & C. Cammann (Eds.), Assessing organizational change: A guide to methods, measures, and practices (pp. 71–138), New York: Wiley-Interscience.

 Google Scholar

Boroff, K. E., & Lewin, D. (1997). Loyalty, voice, and intent to exit a union firm: A conceptual and empirical analysis. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 51(1), 50–63. doi: 10.1177/001979399705100104

 Google Scholar

Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1986). Maslach burnout inventory manual, 2nd ed. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

 Google Scholar

Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–96.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kessler, R. C., Barker, P. R., Colpe, L. J., Epstein, J. F., Gfroerer, J. C., Hiripi, E., … Zaslavsky, A. M. (2003). Screening for serious mental illness in the general population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(2), 184–189. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.60.2.184

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Karasek, R., Brisson, C., Kawakami, N., Houtman, I., Bongers, P., & Amick, B. (1998). The Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ): An instrument for internationally comparative assessments of psychosocial job characteristics. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3(4), 322–355. doi: 10.1037/1076-8998.3.4.322

 PubMedGoogle Scholar