Flexible time – but is the time owned? Family friendly and family unfriendly work arrangements, occupational gender composition and wages: a test of the mother-friendly job hypothesis in Sweden

Figures & data

Figure 1. Gender differences in flexible working conditions (mother-friendly), percent n:2285.

Figure 2. Gender differences in time-consuming work (mother-unfriendly) n:2285.

Table 1. Combination of flexibility and time-consuming work.

Time-consuming work	Flexible work
		No	Yes
	Men	77.0	12.9
No	Women	85.5***	8.4^†
	Men	5.1	5.1
Yes	Women	3.6***	2.6***

***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05; ^†p < 0.10.

Figure 3. Flexible working conditions and occupational gender composition n:2285.

Figure 4. Time-consuming working conditions and occupational gender composition n:2285.

Figure 5. Flexible working conditions and social class n:2285.

Figure 6. Time-consuming conditions and social class n:2285.

Table 2. Flexible working conditions Linear probability model n:2285 (robust s.e.).

Model	1	2	3	4
Constant	0.029 (0.020)	0.006 (0.023)	−0.032 (0.049)	−0.069 (0.050)
Women	−0.031^†(0.018)	−0.031^†(0.017)	−0.022 (0.017)	0.041** (0.016)
No children	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
One child in household	0.033 (0.022)	0.011 (0.021)	−0.010 (0.021)	−0.012 (0.021)
Two children in household	0.087*** (0.022)	0.037^† (0.022)	0.013 (0.022)	0.011 (0.022)
Three or more children in household	0.054^† (0.029)	0.023 (0.022)	−0.006 (0.028)	−0.009 (0.028)
Young child <6 age	0.001 (0.020)	−0.001 (0.022)	0.015 (0.022)	0.017 (0.022)
Percentage female:
0–20%	0.082*** (0.023)	0.062* (0.024)	0.049* (0.025)	0.061* (0.025)
21–40%	0.186*** (0.023)	0.089*** (0.024)	0.086*** (0.025)	0.088*** (0.024)
41–60%	0.188*** (0.025)	0.035 (0.027)	0.024 (0.027)	0.028 (0.027)
61–80%	0.044** (0.017)	0.014 (0.018)	0.024 (0.018)	0.022 (0.018)
81–100%	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
Private sector		Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
Public sector		−0.051*** (0.017)	−0.049** (0.017)	−0.049** (0.017)
Social class:
Skilled/unskilled non-manual workers		Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
Ass. non-manual		0.091*** (0.019)	0.062*** (0.019)	0.075* (0.032)
Intermed. Non-manual		0.173*** (0.018)	0.122*** (0.021)	0.187*** (0.030)
Higher non-manual		0.331*** (0.027)	0.230*** (0.033)	0.270*** (0.041)
Time-consuming work			0.198*** (0.040)	0.190*** (0.040)
Education			−0.000 (0.003)	0.001 (0.003)
Work experience			0.001 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)
Required education			0.009* (0.004)	0.010* (0.004)
Initial training			0.002** (0.001)	0.002* (0.001)
Supervisory position			−0.000* (0.000)	−0.000* (0.000)
Part-time			0.017 (0.015)	0.008 (0.015)
Ass. Non-manual *women				−0.035 (0.039)
Intermed. Non-manual *women				−0.139*** (0.034)
Higher non-manual *women				−0.088^† (0.049)
Adj. R^2	0.063	0.153	0.186	0.193

***p = 0.001; **p = 0.01; *p = 0.05; ^†p=0.10.

Table 3. Time-consuming working conditions. Linear probability model n:2285 (robust s.e.).

Model	1	2	3	4
Constant	0.001 (0.015)	−0.001 (0.017)	−0.103** (0.037)	−0.134*** (0.038)
Women	−0.027^† (0.015)	−0.027^† (0.015)	−0.013 (0.015)	0.035** (0.012)
No children	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
One child in household	0.063*** (0.019)	0.047** (0.018)	0.031^† (0.017)	0.031^† (0.017)
Two children in household	0.090*** (0.018)	0.058*** (0.017)	0.040* (0.018)	0.040* (0.018)
Three or more children in household	0.075** (0.024)	0.057* (0.023)	0.037 (0.023)	0.036 (0.023)
Young child <6 age	−0.046* (0.018)	−0.047** (0.018)	−0.039* (0.018)	−0.040* (0.018)
Percentage female:
0–20%	0.035* (0.017)	0.014 (0.018)	−0.001 (0.018)	0.015 (0.018)
21–40%	0.117*** (0.018)	0.041* (0.018)	0.036* (0.018)	0.041* (0.018)
41–60%	0.145*** (0.020)	0.031 (0.021)	0.025 (0.020)	0.034^† (0.020)
61–80%	0.039*** (0.011)	0.014 (0.012)	0.019 (0.012)	0.020^† (0.012)
80–100%	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
Private sector		Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
Public sector		−0.041** (0.013)	−0.051*** (0.013)	−0.051*** (0.013)
Social class:
Skilled/unskilled non-manual workers		Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
Ass. non-manual		0.069*** (0.015)	0.033* (0.014)	0.060* (0.025)
Intermed. Non-manual		0.081*** (0.012)	0.006 (0.015)	0.035^† (0.020)
Higher non-manual		0.241*** (0.024)	0.105*** (0.028)	0.148*** (0.036)
Flexibility			0.120*** (0.038)	0.116*** (0.025)
Education			0.006* (0.003)	0.006* (0.003)
Work experience			0.001^† (0.001)	0.001^† (0.001)
Required education			0.011*** (0.003)	0.010** (0.003)
Initial training			0.001 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)
Supervisory position			0.001** (0.000)	0.001** (0.000)
Part-time			−0.015^† (0.010)	−0.022* (0.001)
Ass. Non-manual *women				−0.054^† (0.031)
Intermed. Non-manual *women				−0.064** (0.024)
Higher non-manual *women				−0.100* (0.043)
Adj. R^2	0.057	0.131	0.181	0.185

Note: Reference categories no children present in the household, 80–100 percentage female in the occupations, private sector, skilled/unskilled non-manual workers.

***p = 0.001; **p = 0.01; *p = 0.05; ^†p = 0.10.

Table 4. Unstandardized coefficients from an OLS-regression model of log hourly wages n:2285.

Model	1^a	2^a	3^a	4^a
Constant	4.877*** (0.045)	4.845*** (0.044)	4.848*** (0.043)	4.837*** (0.043)
Women	−0.070*** (0.012)	−0.058*** (0.013)	−0.056*** (0.012)	−0.048*** (0.013)
Not flexible work		Ref.
Flexible work		0.124*** (0.019)	–	–
Flexible work*women		−0.054^† (0.029)	–	–
Not Time-consuming work			Ref.
Time-consuming work			0.268*** (0.023)	–
Time-consuming*women			−0.075*	–
No flex no time				Ref.
Flex no time				0.091*** (0.021)
Time no flex				0.254*** (0.031)
Flex and time				0.328*** (0.031)
Flex no time *women				−0.056^† (0.032)
Time no flex *women				−0.111* (0.048)
Flex and time *women				−0.035 (0.053)
Adj. R^2	0.473	0.482	0.501	0.513

^aControlled for education, work experience, experience squared, sector, share of female in the occupation and social class.

***p = 0.001; **p = 0.01; *p = 0.05.