Evidence-driven model for implementing Blockchain in food supply chains

Figures & data

Figure 1. A conceptual framework for implementing Blockchain in FSC (Adapted from Vu, Ghadge, and Bourlakis 2021).

Table 1. Description of interviewees.

	Position	Details about the companies	Experience
P1	Quality manager	Fruit producer with 7 large facilities, leading grower of some products in Australia.	15 + years
P2	Business development manager	Blockchain service provider with experience in implementing Blockchain for a wide range of actors in the food chain (cooperatives, producers, importers, retailers).	5 + years
P3	Sales executive	Seafood producer, one of the largest shrimp suppliers in South America.	10 + years
P4	General manager	Blockchain service provider, with experience in implementing Blockchain for large and medium-size organisations in the food chain.	5 + years
P5	CEO	Blockchain service provider, with experience in implementing Blockchain for a large pig producer in East Asia.	20 + years
P6	Founder & CEO	Blockchain service provider with experience in piloting Blockchain for a medium-size seafood producer in Northern EU.	20 + years in technology adoption, 4 + years in the food industry
P7	Project manager	Food regulator with direct experience of experimenting with Blockchain for meat and wine products in the UK.	5 + years
P8	Project manager	Blockchain service provider, with experience in implementing Blockchain for a small distillery in the EU.	2 + years
P9	Founder & CEO	Seafood reseller, medium-size company in the US.	10 + years
P10	Founder & CEO	Blockchain service provider	5 + years
P11	Senior consultant	Consulting service	10 + years
P12	Director of emerging technology	Blockchain and software service, with experience of pilot Blockchain for tea producers in South America.	10 + years
P13	Founder & CEO	Processed food manufacturer, a medium-size company in India.	4 + years
P14	Founder & CEO	Service provider, with experience in working with small and medium livestock farms in Africa.	15 + years
P15	A team consists of the CEO, Marketing head, and Blockchain project lead	Olive oil producer, large size company in EU.	Member with least experience has had 5 + years in the food industry

Table 2. Example of coding for developing concepts and themes.

Illustrative quotes	First-order concept	Second-order theme	Aggregated dimension
We've got a very strong R&D investment programme because innovation and improvement are critical to our future development. A value of our company is recognising the importance of investing in innovation – P1.	Strong R&D investment and infrastructure	Innovativeness	Organisation
We are always at the forefront of innovation; we always want to be at the top of the heap. We don't want to be at the bottom of the heap – P3.	Actively seeking new ideas
From the start, [the adopting company] was really thrilled about Blockchain … they've already heard about at least Bitcoin or Blockchain technology before, they're also very keen on experimenting with a new idea – P8.	Encouraging trial of new ideas

Figure 2. Overview of the process

Figure 3. Overview of the determinants of the Blockchain process

Figure 4. Evidence-based framework for implementing Blockchain in FSC.

Table

Section	Question
Introduction	Interviewer confirms the name and position of the interviewee, asking for necessary permission such as recording.
	Could you briefly describe the Blockchain project which your company is/was undertaking?
Process related questions	I would like to know more about the phases and activities, which often take place in a Blockchain project. From your own experience, what was the first activity you do to set off the project? And after that? What was the most current activity that has been done?
Factors related questions	In your opinion, what are some of the influential factors to this project?
	What are some factors/ elements that makes the process of this project faster/ easier, or more difficult?
	What are some of the challenges when applying Blockchain for food chain?
	How would you rate the role of managers in this Blockchain endeavour?
Closing the interview	(If there are some points which the interviewer needs to be clarified or confirmed)About … , could you please elaborate … .
	If possible, could you please introduce me to someone who is willing to participate in this research, who has had similar experience like yourself?

Table

Illustrative quotes	First order concept	Second order theme	Aggregate dimension
The traditional chains are actually fragmented and not collaborative. The traditional chain is actually transactional based, and that absolutely constrains the capacity to actually improve the chain. With Blockchain, we're trying to have a paradigm shift where we go from companies holding information to actually sharing it – P1We started, roughly around 2011, working with a cooperative that was offering organic meat products to the market. There was not a way of efficiently communicate that there's a story behind this product, versus maybe some other product with might have come through a more intensive farming practices, or more of what we consider like factory meat. So we were looking at deploying a decentralised network of information, leveraged by Blockchain, for visibility, extermination of data silos, and defragmenting the whole supply chain network – P4	Recognising a need for Blockchain	Initiation phase	Process
we start off with workshops really inception workshops to do a bit of brainstorming around the scope of the project, say what is achievable, what are your burning questions that we want to tackle and do a bit of prioritisation exercises with them. Frame the problem identify the scope timeframes, key contacts, and who else we needed to talk to them, we didn't have in that room – P7.In the first 12 months of the project we let [service company] do what they want, and we did not learn a thing. After 12 months of working on the Blockchain project, I said to the [service company] that there was no need for you to develop temperature logs as we have the technology available. I moved the focus away from them building temp loggers and tracking temperature to know what the important information is, how to capture it, and how to share it with chain partners with the help of Blockchain – P1the first thing we do is we support with the data mapping and the participants mapping so first to understand who is involved, who is doing what. When does the ownership of the products change hands what places, because that will also influence what data, who is to upload so we have to know that first so map out the supply chain, the participants? And then we also support in mapping out the data so understanding what details, do we need in what format are those in other existing systems do we have to work with simplified uploads. So that's the basically the first step to get started – P2.	Scoping and planning
We made a pilot project last year last summer, with the halibut producer and distribution companies and slaughterers and all the way out to sushi restaurants. So we could track everything. We do it in in smaller incremental steps so starting with a small pilot showing that we can actually prove something we can do something. And then start integrating with iot sensors and you start integrating with the production system under ERP system, and so on – P6.	Pilot
when they decide to e.g. scale to more volume or to do their entire supply chain this is a more strategic decision that takes time. After the pilot, there is usually an evaluation of the process and outcomes that lead to the decision to continue with the scaling (usually to more supply chains and more volumes). The point is therefore usually at the end of the pilot when they’ve tested the capacity of the system. To scale, we usually need integration, and for a company to take that decision (a larger investment) they would have wanted to test how the system works first – P2	Comes after evaluating the results of the pilot	Adoption decision phase
After the discovery phase and the solution is deemed feasible, we had two banks prepared to work with the system to lend based on the company due diligence report, and access to the raw data held on the Blockchain. We consulted, did some coding for the company, but it really became their solution – P5	Preparation for large scale implementation	Implementation phase
We successfully integrated Wholechain, our Blockchain solution, in our seafood at scale. It is used in every delivery, not just a pilot or only some product line – P9	Integrating Blockchain
And in the other end if we thank my farmer consumer APP. It is a progressive web APP and there is really where consumer can see more information around their product see map that is powered by blockchain, where consumers can either learn more and understand what projects that are implemented in those communities and also where they want to, they can follow those and even support with a financial. That’s the end-to-end system – P2	End user engagement
One thing that we are selling is both visibility and connectivity, so companies today normally only have one tier up and tier down of information flow, you only get information from your first supplier, and you give it to your customer. By using a public blockchain where all the actors can be connected, you get information from your supplier’s supplier’s supplier and give to customers’ customer all the way to the end customer, and you can open a communication channel all the way to your end consumers and get this interaction with your consumers – P6	New values can be added using Blockchain	Relative advantage	Technology
We work with a big brewing company who wants to source their barley directly into their malt houses. They don’t want to get their barley mixed up, they want it from certain areas with quality assurance, biosecurity, compliance with chemical use and chemical residue. They want all that information on my Blockchain system, so they can check chronological hashing order to award the business to the most honest and trustworthy suppliers – P10	Facilitating a more trustworthy and transparent supply chain
frictionless trade is a big thing for companies. one of the big drivers for the HMRC wine pilot is to see how it can link up with existing systems to you know offer that friction is trade perspective. So that if you are, for example, you're providing all the information, maybe it's an easier way to you know sign off those consignments – P7	Improving current process such as reducing time and increasing efficiency
The Blockchain idea started when we were looking at securing data points for the quality measures in the meat red meat industry. There is no quality read on lamb, for example, and that is an issue. And securing those data points about red meat quality, is a natural home for Blockchain with the privacy and security – P10	Blockchain should align with the need and goal of the organisation	Compatibility
There's very little chance that you'll be able to entirely change the whole process, just for the sake of implementing a new piece of technology so it's rather adopting to the existing processes and being able to appreciate them and leverage them in the best way possible to get the value – P4	The use of Blockchain should correlate with the current process
we were working with the different systems in food supply chains you're touching different IT vendors different systems, different file formats different or everything's different for anything from an excel file to a customed ERP/SAP and Oracle and Microsoft right. So interoperability of the Blockchain solution is to enable more fluent communication between the systems – P4	Blockchain should be able to integrate with current system/ technology
We have a lot of discussions that are underway. But if I'm asked to put it, I would still view Blockchain as definitely being at education phase. People are still getting their heads around it and trying to figure out – P10	Blockchain is still a novel concept to business, so it takes time to grasp the technology and its use.	Complexity
Private, public, and hybrid solutions of Blockchain are different, and are chosen depends on who we are onboarding on our solution. There are different solutions, depending on different group of use cases how we see the market being matured – P12	Many solutions to choose from
One of the biggest challenges, we found, was that how to scale up the solution in a sustainable way. What is the self-sustaining model for running the Blockchain solution for everyone to sue, and at the same time with low entry barriers for more to join – P7	Difficulties in configuring and tailoring the solution to fit the business
Because, at the end of the day, food industry as a whole it's a very the margins are really tight yeah so whatever you do, you should not add cost – P4We focused on small holder farmers; our price point is very competitive. There are a lot of solutions that just want to focus on high end commercial whereas ours is for everybody and relatively inexpensive, so farmers love us – P14	Cost of implementing Blockchain is influential	Cost
You have to be mindful of the cost of storing data on Blockchain because in the supply chain there is a lot of information generated. So you have to get a balance of the speed of authenticating the data, and the cost of doing so – P1	Cost of running and maintaining the solution is influential
One type of investment in this kind of project, Blockchain, is providing money – P1	Organisation needs sufficient fund for the Blockchain project	Resources	Organisation
All of the staffs involved in the project were very young, but they were exceedingly talented people, and that was such an advantage – P5	Capable people on the project are an advantage
For some companies, they are very much set up. They have systems in place, data is already standardised across, so it is very easy to work with them on the Blockchain project. In other places it's really scattered, certain companies in some countries have paper records still, and when that happens it's a difficult starting point – P2	Organisation with better traceability infrastructure finds Blockchain implementation less challenging	Readiness
When this Blockchain project presented itself, we knew that we were capable of doing it. Of course there were some challenges but not difficult to overcome. The Ecuadorian shrimp farming industry is very matured, and we have had over 40 years of being in the industry, with experience of implementing many technologies – P3	Adoption is easier when organisation is technologically capable
People do not like change. When we discuss Blockchain, some stakeholders loved it, and others were negative about it. It is a big issue because people sometimes are caught up with the old thinking of ‘he who owns the data will role the world of information’, so Blockchain with connectivity and data sharing scares them – P10	Ready to change mindset is needed in an organisation
We've got a very, very strong R&D investment programme because innovation and improvement are critical to our future development. A value of our company is recognising the importance of investing in innovation – P1.	Strong R&D investment and infrastructure	Innovativeness
We are always at the forefront of innovation; we always want to be at the top of the heap. We don't want to be at the bottom of the heap – P3.	Actively seeking new ideas
From the start, [the adopting company] was really thrilled about blockchain … they've already heard about at least bitcoin or blockchain technology before, they're also very keen on experimenting with new idea – P8.	Encouraging trial of new ideas
the farmer in Africa cannot dictate Nestle to adopt blockchain. It has to be the management of Nestle who will ask the farmer in Africa to be onboarded for traceability and visibility for their consumers. That's how it works – P12	Organisation with more resources and commanding power in the network should be driving the project	Size and position
An example is the the US government's FDA has new era of smarter, food safety report and in the FCC regulations, Section 2040, they have actually listed down few products that will be required to provide the end-to-end traceability (cheese, milk, etc). So those companies who are operating in those food chain, because of regulations, are pushed to adopt or apply blockchain because blockchain was mentioned in that regulation as well. So when I come to them, I don’t have to explain a lot and already get the welcoming attitude – P12	Policies regarding food will be tighten, drive business to use Blockchain	Influences from regulators	Environment
Five projects that P1, P3, and P7 were involved with are directly funded by the governments	Encouraging the use of Blockchain from regulators
Consumers play important part in driving Blockchain adoption, you see it in market and reports. Consumers demand for trust, with more and more food recalls being more frequent, consumers’ demand really is becoming significant – P9	Consumers’ demand pushes companies to use Blockchain	Influences from consumers
It is the food that we are consuming, so if there is that little bit extra to make sure that they will be more secured, people are willing to pay it – P10	Consumers are willing to pay more for transparent products enabled by Blockchain
Our Blockchain enabled traceability system is end to end, and we are usually working with minimum of two or three connected companies in the supply chain, sometimes even more, in order to apply our solution to a supply chain – P2	Blockchain solution needs participation from other organisations in the supply chain	Influences from other organisations
Fundamentally it is a change in paradigm, in thinking, in the attitude of the businesses in the chain. So you really need the businesses to have a collaborative culture, where they are willing to participate and work together as a whole chain – P1	Collaborative culture in the supply chain is an advantage for implementing Blockchain
For one of our projects, we had three companies, who are also competitors in the market, joined. We start off with one company, and it is interesting that, almost like a cascading effect, because the other two knew about that and wanted to join as well – P7	Competitive pressure drives companies to adopt Blockchain
In order to integrate Blockchain into a company, managers have to be ready for the change and also have to be ready to be in charge of such change – P11	Management shows willingness to embark on the Blockchain journey	Attitude from managers	Management
When working with the client for the Blockchain pilot, there wasn't any negativity or concerns from top management. And I think that creates a healthy working environment – P8	Management is supportive throughout the project.
Managers in companies we work with are not involved in day in day out of the project. But they are definitely aware of the progress. And it is a strategic decision to go towards digitalisation, technology, traceability, and responsible sourcing, and it is really a management decision – P2	Management actively participates on formulating strategies and visions of using Blockchain	Involvement from managers
We are actually seeing a really good amount of senior level managers involved, and that is really encouraging because ultimately it is them who have to drive the project and lead their organisation in adopting Blockchain – P9	Management presence during the project is encouraging

Vu, N., Ghadge, A., and Bourlakis, M. 2021. “Blockchain Adoption in Food Supply Chains: A Review and Implementation Framework.” Production Planning & Control 1–18.

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Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study is available from the corresponding author following a reasonable request.