Cajoling or coercing: would electoral engineering resolve the young citizen–state disconnect?

Figures & data

Figure 1. If you could change one thing about the world, what would it be, and why?

Table 1. Proposals to increase voting by whether voted at the 2010 general election.

	Voted at the 2010 General Election?
Would you be more likely or less likely to vote in the future if:	Yes	No
… you were able to vote in a public place such as a supermarket?
More likely	29.2%	35.9%
Make no difference	59.6%	51.9%
Less Likely	11.2%	12.2%
χ^2= 4.84, df = 2, p = .089
… you were able to vote over more than one day (including weekends)?
More likely	45.2%	46.4%
Make no difference	51.0%	48.7%
Less likely	3.8%	4.9%
χ^2= .854, df = 2, p = .653
… polling stations were open for 24 hours?
More likely	42.8%	37.5%
Make no difference	56.1%	60.3%
Less likely	1.2%	2.2%
χ^2 = 3.53, df = 2, p = .172
… you were able to vote by post?
More likely	33.0%	40.2%
Make no difference	61.5%	53.1%
Less likely	5.5%	6.6%
χ^2 = 5.64, df = 2, p = .060
… you were able to vote by phone (including by text message or smart phone app)?
More likely	44.4%	50.4%
Make no difference	48.8%	43.3%
Less likely	6.8%	6.3%
χ^2 = 2.80, df = 2, p = .247
… you were able to vote via the internet or digital TV?
More likely	55.0%	61.3%
Make no difference	40.5%	34.9%
Less likely	4.5%	3.7%
	χ^2 = 3.17, df = 2, p = .205

Table 2. Proposals to increase voting by likelihood to vote at the next general election.

	Likelihood of voting at the next general election
Would you be more likely or less likely to vote in the future if:	Very unlikely	Unlikely	Neither unlikely or likely	Likely	Very likely
… you were able to vote in a public place such as a supermarket?
More likely	21.6%	32.5%	32.6%	39.9%	29.4%
Make no difference	73.0%	53.2%	57.4%	52.0%	56.7%
Less likely	5.4%	14.3%	10.1%	8.1%	14.0%
	χ^2 = 17.52, df = 8, p = .025
… you were able to vote over more than one day (including weekends)?
More likely	31.1%	38.5%	39.5%	53.7%	47.4%
Make no difference	63.5%	56.4%	55.8%	43.6%	48.2%
Less likely	5.4%	5.1%	4.7%	2.7%	4.5%
	χ^2 = 14.81, df = 8, p = .063
… polling stations were open for 24 hours?
More likely	30.1%	32.1%	31.6%	45.3%	46.3%
Make no difference	69.9%	66.7%	64.7%	52.7%	52.5%
Less likely	0	1.3%	3.8%	2.0%	1.2%
	χ^2 = 22.97, df = 8, p = .003
… you were able to vote by post?
More likely	28.0%	33.8%	29.5%	38.9%	35.4%
Make no difference	69.3%	61.3%	59.1%	51.7%	59.7%
Less likely	2.7%	5.0%	11.4%	9.4%	4.9%
	χ^2 = 16.62, df = 8, p = .034
… you were able to vote by phone (including by text message or smart phone app)?
More likely	31.6%	43.0%	44.4%	56.1%	45.5%
Make no difference	64.5%	53.2%	46.6%	37.8%	47.2%
Less likely	3.9%	3.8%	9.0%	6.1%	7.3%
	χ^2 = 18.30, df = 8, p = .019
… you were able to vote via the internet or digital TV?
More likely	45.3%	50.0%	53.4%	65.3%	57.9%
Make no difference	52.0%	43.8%	42.9%	30.6%	37.7%
Less likely	2.7%	6.3%	3.8%	4.1%	4.5%
	χ^2 = 13.06, df = 8, p = .110

Note: Percentages represent percentage within each column.

Table 3. Proposals to increase voting by socio-demographic factors.

	Gender		Ethnicity		Qualifications at level 2		In full-time education		Main wage earner is professional/managerial
Would you be more likely or less likely to vote in the future if:	Female	Male	White	BME	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No
… you were able to vote in a public place such as a supermarket?
More likely	33.3%	27.9%	30.4%	31.0%	35.1%	28.4%	32.7%	29.3%	30.4%	30.6%
Make no difference	55.8%	60.1%	57.9%	58.4%	53.7%	60.1%	54.7%	59.8%	58.2%	57.8%
Less likely	10.9%	12.0%	11.7%	10.6%	11.3%	11.5%	12.7%	10.8%	11.4%	11.6%
	χ^2 = 3.23, p = .199		χ^2 = .125, p = .939		χ^2 = 4.61, p = .100		χ^2 = 2.31, p = .312		χ^2 = .011 p = .994
… you were able to vote over more than one day (including weekends)?
More likely	48.8%	41.6%	44.9%	47.8%	49.6%	43.6%	42.5%	45.9%	43.8%	46.9%
Make no difference	46.9%	53.8%	50.5%	48.7%	45.7%	52.8%	52.8%	49.9%	51.0%	49.8%
Less likely	4.2%	4.5%	4.6%	3.5%	4.8%	3.6%	4.7%	4.2%	5.2%	3.3%
	χ^2 = 5.18, p = .075		χ^2 = .545, p = .761		χ^2 = 4.59, p = .101		χ^2 = .971, p = .615		χ^2 = 2.489, p = .288
… polling stations were open for 24 hours?
More likely	42.1%	40.0%	40.9%	42.2%	43.5%	41.0%	40.1%	41.5%	39.5%	43.3%
Make no difference	56.2%	58.6%	57.5%	56.0%	55.4%	57.7%	58.2%	57.0%	58.5%	55.8%
Less likely	1.7%	1.4%	1.6%	1.7%	1.2%	1.3%	1.6%	1.5%	2.0%	1.0%
	χ^2 = .670, p = .715		χ^2 = .085, p = .958		χ^2 = .537, p = .764		χ^2 = .185, p = .912		χ^2 = 2.691, p = .260
… you were able to vote by post?
More likely	39.8%	30.2%	34.6%	37.1%	34.3%	35.8%	36.1%	34.3%	34.1%	35.7%
Make no difference	54.4%	63.5%	60.0%	51.7%	59.1%	58.7%	57.7%	60.0%	59.0%	59.3%
Less likely	5.7%	6.3%	5.4%	11.2%	6.6%	5.5%	6.2%	5.6%	6.9%	4.9%
	χ^2 = 10.01, p = .006		χ^2 = 7.04, p = .030		χ^2 = 551, p = .759		χ^2 = .496, p = .780		χ^2 = 1.721, p = .423
… you were able to vote by phone (including text message or smart phone app)?
More likely	51.8%	39.1%	44.8%	50.0%	45.8%	45.1%	42.7%	46.3%	44.1%	46.9%
Make no difference	42.9%	52.4%	48.7%	40.5%	46.7%	48.2%	48.2%	47.8%	48.7%	46.7%
Less likely	5.3%	8.5%	6.5%	9.5%	7.5%	6.7%	9.1%	5.8%	7.2%	6.4%
	χ^2 = 16.82, p = .000		χ^2 = 3.376, p = .185		χ^2 = .328, p = .849		χ^2 = 3.903, p = .142		χ^2 = .846, p = .655
… you were able to vote via the internet or digital TV?
More likely	61.4%	51.0%	55.1%	62.1%	57.5%	55.7%	53.0%	57.4%	56.3%	55.8%
Make no difference	35.4%	43.2%	40.8%	30.2%	38.0%	39.9%	41.4%	38.6%	39.4%	39.4%
Less likely	3.2%	5.8%	4.1%	7.8%	4.5%	4.4%	5.6%	4.0%	4.3%	4.8%
	χ^2 = 12.14, p = .002		χ^2 = 6.80, p = .033		χ^2 = .310, p = .856		χ^2 = 2.299, p = .317		χ^2 = .110, p = .946

Note: Percentages represent percentage within each column.

Table 4. Proposals to introduce compulsory voting by whether voted at the 2010 General Election.

	Voted at the 2010 General Election?
Would you be more likely or less likely to vote in the future if:	Yes	No
Voting was compulsory?
More likely	47.8%	55.5%
Make no difference	45.6%	31.3%
Less likely	6.6%	13.2%
	χ^2 = 21.58, df = 2, p < .001

Note: Percentages represent percentage within each column.

Table 5. Proposals to introduce compulsory voting by likelihood to vote at the next general election.

	Likelihood of voting at the next general election
Would you be more likely or less likely to vote in the future if:	Very unlikely	Unlikely	Neither unlikely or likely	Likely	Very likely
Voting was compulsory?
More likely	35.6%	60.3%	42.7%	56.9%	51.2%
Make no difference	42.5%	35.9%	43.5%	34.0%	43.2%
Less likely	21.9%	3.8%	13.7%	9.0%	5.5%
	χ^2 = 37.52, df = 8, p < .001

Note: Percentages represent percentage within each column.

Table 6. Proposals to introduce compulsory voting by socio-demographic factors.

	Gender		Ethnicity		Qualifications at level 2		In full-time education		Main wage earner is professional/managerial
Would you be more likely or less likely to vote in the future if:	Female	Male	White	BME	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No
If voting was compulsory
More likely	52.3%	46.7%	48.3%	60.9%	48.5%	50.7%	43.2%	52.3%	49.6%	49.4%
Make no difference	41.3%	42.4%	43.6%	30.0%	40.4%	42.7%	43.5%	41.2%	42.0%	41.7%
Less likely	6.4%	10.9%	8.2%	9.1%	11.1%	6.5%	13.3%	6.5%	8.3%	8.9%
	χ^2 = 7.41, p = .025		χ^2 = 7.48, p = .024		χ^2 = 5.99, p = .050		χ^2 = 14.90, p = .001		χ^2  =  .103, p  =  .950

Note: Percentages represent percentage within each column.