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Abstract
As ‘classical’ radio monitoring was—due to massive censorship—only of limited value for gathering uncensored information on Central and Eastern Europe, Radio Free Europe (RFE) relied in the early Cold War extensively on uncensored information brought out by émigrés. RFE interviewed fresh escapees not only to gain knowledge on everyday life but to also collect information on the practice and persecution of clandestine radio listening behind the Iron Curtain. Through the lens of RFE listeners’ testimonies and audience reports from the early 1950s, this article explores interviewing as an unorthodox method for gathering information about its own clandestine audiences in the target countries. It uses the Western gaze of individual defectors to better understand how highly subjective stories of clandestine listening were captured, narratively framed and employed in the ideological battle between East and West.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 ‘Dangers of Listening to Foreign Radio Broadcasts,’ 7 April 1954. [Electronic record] HU OSA 300-1-2-45368; Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) Research Institute: General Records: Information Items; Open Society Archives (OSA) at Central European University, Budapest.
2 Ratesh, ‘Radio Free Europe’s Impact in Romania During the Cold War,’ 209.
3 ‘Mark Ethridge Survey of RFE Information Field Apparatus,’ [272.6], Alphabetical File. RFE News Department. Special Reports, 1955, 1–23, 19–20, Hoover Institution Archives (HIA) RFE/RL Corporate Records, Stanford.
4 Audience Response to RFE-Voice of Free Poland. April 1954 Through April 1955, [469.20], Assessment Memorandum 17, 1955, Audience Analysis Section. RFE Munich. Poland, IV, HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records.
5 Audience Analysis. Facts about Source and Interview. Item NO. 279/55. [1670.3], Hungary. APOR. News-Hungary, Refugees General, 1955-Jan-Febr., HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records.
6 Haas, “Communities of Journalists and Journalism,” 17.
7 Johnson, “To Monitor or to Be Monitored,” 2.
8 ‘Poland. Regime Press and Radio Response to Western Broadcasts. May–August 1955,’ 3–5, [469.22] Assessment Memorandum 19, October 1955, 2, HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
9 ‘Poland. Regime Press and Radio Response to Western Broadcasts. May–August 1955,’ 2.
10 ‘Poland. Regime Press and Radio Response to Western Broadcasts. May-August 1955,’ 3–5, [469.22].
11 Johnson, “History” of RFE/RL. https://pressroom.rferl.org/p/6092.html [Accessed March 5, 2019].
12 ‘Request to State Department for information on Eastern Europe for Radio Free Europe Broadcasts,’ March 16, 1950, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Obtained and contributed to CWIHP by A. Ross Johnson. Cited in his book Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. CIA mandatory declassification review document number C01441003, 1–6, 2.
13 Ralph E. Walter, Memorandum ‘New Instructions on Procedures for the Radio’s Journalistic Activity in Gathering Information from East European Travellers in the West,’ 1–11, 1. HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records.
14 ‘Dangers of Listening to Foreign Radio Broadcasts’, 7 April 1954. [Electronic Record] HU OSA 300-1-2-45368; Records of RFE/RL Research Institute: General Records: Information Items; OSA, Budapest.
15 ‘Report on Radio Free Europe,’ July 16, 1951, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Obtained by A. Ross Johnson. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/134120, 7–8. [Accessed March 25, 2019].
16 Kennedy, Of Knowledge and Power, 8.
17 ‘Poland. Audience Response to RFE-Voice of Free Poland. April 1954 Through April 1955,’ 1–36, 1. [496.20], Assessment Memorandum 17, October 1955, HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
18 ‘Poland. Audience Response to RFE-Voice of Free Poland. April 1954 Through April 1955,’ vii. [496.20].
19 See the ‘creation note’ on the OSA homepage. http://hdl.handle.net/10891/osa:85b6d2c1-9948-4d30-977b-62e6d3d84f5c
20 ‘Poland. Audience Response to RFE-Voice of Free Poland. April 1954 Through April 1955,’ IV, [496.20].
21 Haas, “Communities of Journalists and Journalism Practice,” 112.
22 Parta, “Audience Research in Extremis,” 124.
23 Ibid., 125.
24 Mytton, “Audience Research at the BBC External Services During the Cold War,” 56.
25 Meyen, “Geistige Grenzgänger,” 195.
26 Ibid.
27 Mytton, “Audience Research at the BBC External Services during the Cold War,” 57.
28 ‘Report on Radio Free Europe,’ 4.
29 Pacepa, Red Horizons, 189.
30 ‘Audience Analysis Interview with a Young, Politically Passive Female Student,’ July 30 1955. [No. 1671.3], APOR. News-Hungary. Exile-Refugees General 1955 June-Oct, HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
31 ‘Audience Analysis Interview with a Young, Politically Passive Female Student,’ [1671.3].
32 ‘Audience Analysis Interview with a 20-year old refugee from Kapuvár,’ Hungary. Item No 993/55, [1670. 3], News-Hungary. Refugees-General, 1955 Jan-Febr, 0–2, 1. HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
33 ‘Audience Analysis Interview with a 20-year-old refugee from Kapuvár,’ [1670. 3].
34 ‘Poland. Audience Response to RFE-Voice of Free Poland. April 1954 Through April 1955,’ ii, [496.20].
35 Pirker, “Radio Free Europe in Österreich,” 2.
36 ‘Report on Radio Free Europe,’ July 16, 1951, 8.
37 Macrea-Toma, “Radio Free Europe in Paris,” 38.
38 RFE memorandum to Ralph E. Walter from J. F. Brown, ‘An Inquiry into Information Reporting,’ March 2, 1970, 1–31, 20. HIA, RFE/RL corporate records. Copy obtained from the Open Society Archives.
39 Pirker, “Radio Free Europe in Österreich,” 5.
40 Ibid.
41 Helmut Aigner ran this programme between the 1960s and 1980s.
42 RFE memorandum to Ralph E. Walter from J. F. Brown, ‘An Inquiry into Information Reporting,’ March 2, 1970, 1–31, 21.
43 Pirker, “Radio Free Europe in Österreich.”
44 Euro Refugee Camp People. Vienna, October 2, [1670.2], APOR. Items_Hungary. Exile Assistance activities. 1951–1958. HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records.
45 ‘An Inquiry into Information Reporting,’ March 2, 1970, 1–31, 6.
46 ‘An Inquiry into Information Reporting,’ 6.
47 ‘For Information Only. Hungary.’ 3. December 1952, [1678.3], HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
48 ‘Hungary. A High-School Student from Sopron Reports on Audience Reactions, Focus and Political Attitudes, March 10, 1055,’ [No. 1670.4], APOR. News-Hungary. Exile-Refugees-General, 1955 March, HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
49 Hungary. Audience Analysis. I Facts about Source and Interview. January 15, 1955 [1670.3], APOR. News-Hungary. Refugees-General, 1955 Jan–Feb., 1–3. HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
50 ‘Hungary. Audience Analysis Interview with a 20-year-old refugee from Kapuvár,’ 1, [1670.3].
51 ‘Hungary. Audience Analysis. I. Facts about Source and Interview,’ Item No. 278/55. January 15 1955. [1670.3] APOR Hungary. Refugees-General. 1955, Jan-Feb. HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
52 ‘Hungary. A Budapest-Clerk’s Attitude to Communism and the West,’ March 28, 1955. [1670.4] APOR. News-Hungary. Exile-Refugees-General, 1955 March, HIA, RFE/RL corporate records, Stanford.
53 ‘Hungary. Attitude Report with a Teenager,’ April 7, 1955, [1670.4], APOR. News-Hungary. Exile-Refugees-General, 1955 March, HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
54 ‘Hungary. Attitude Research Interview with a Young Border Guard,’ [1670.4], APOR. News-Hungary. Exile-Refugees-General, 1955 March, April 19, 1955, HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
55 ‘Hungary. Response to Our Political Orientation Questionnaire,’ Item N. 232/55. January 13, 1955, 1–4, [1670.3]. APOR. News-Hungary. Refugees-General, 1955 Jan-Febr. HIA, RFE/RL corporate records, Stanford.
56 ‘Attitude Research. Hungary.’ ITEM Nr. 706/55. February 1 1955. [1670.3] APOR News-Hungary. Refugees General, 1955 Jan-Febr. 1–15, 3–5, HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
57 ‘Attitude Research. Hungary.’ [1670.3].
58 RFE memorandum to Ralph E. Walter from J. F. Brown, ‘An Inquiry into Information Reporting,’ March 2, 1970, 1–31, 20.
59 Russell Hill, Vienna, ‘Guide for Interviewers,’ 3/1953, 1–11, 2. HIA, RFE/RL corporate records. Copy obtained from the Open Society Archives.
60 ‘Hungary. The Attitude of a Foundry Worker,’ March 9, 1955. [1670.4], APOR. News-Hungary. Exile-Refugees-General, 1955 March, HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
61 RFE memorandum to Ralph E. Walter from J. F. Brown, ‘An Inquiry into Information Reporting,’ March 2, 1970, 1–31, 27. HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
62 ‘Activities Performed and Their Purpose,’ 1968, 1–9, 8. HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
63 These items, which are today part of the RFE/RL collection at the Vera & Donald Blinken Open Society Archives in Budapest, were created by the RFE’s News and Information Department and have been made digitally available in the past years.
64 Kracauer and Bergman, Cited in Rév, “Just Noise?,” 242.
65 Feinberg, Curtain of Lies, 89.
66 Russell Hill, ‘Guide for Interviewers,’ 1, 3/1953.
67 Ibid.
68 ‘Poland. Regime Radio Programming Policies and Listener Reaction,’ April-September 1954. No. 2, October 1954, [469.5], Audience Opinion Research, Assessment Memorandum 2 1954, Audience Analysis Section, 1–9, 9. HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
69 ‘Poland. Audience Response to RFE-Voice of Free Poland, April 1954 Through April 1955,’ 1, [496.20].
70 ‘Hungary. An Ex-Merchant’s Relationship toward His Country, March 8, 1955,’ [1670.4], Item No 1810/55. March 9. 1955, APOR Hungary. Exile-Refugees-General 1955 March, HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
71 ‘Hungary. Audience Analysis,’ I. Item No. 278/55. Facts about Source and Interview. January 15 1955 [1670.3], HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
72 Russel. Hill, “Guide for Interviewers,” 3/1953, 2.
73 Ibid., 5–7.
74 ‘Poland. Audience Response to RFE_Voice of Free Poland. April 1954 through 1955,’ 18, [469.20].
75 Ibid.
76 Ibid, 18.
77 ‘Hungary. Audience Analysis,’ 7, [1670.3].
78 Hungary. Audience Analysis,’ 1, [1670.3].
79 ‘Audience Analysis Interview with a 20-year old refugee from Kapuvár,’ [1670. 3].
80 ‘Hungary. Audience Analysis,’ 2, [1670.3].
81 Ibid., 8.
82 Ibid., 9.
83 ‘Expelled from School for Listening to Western Broadcasts,’ 24 September 1952. [Electronic Resource] HU OSA 300-1-2-25870; Records of RFE/RL Research Institute: General Records: Information Items; Open Society Archives at Central European University, Budapest.
84 ‘Bulgaria. Audience Response to Western Broadcasts, August 1954–July 1955,’ 21. November 1955. [470.1], Assessment Memo # 21, 1–25, 19, HIA, RFE/RL corporate records.
85 ‘Bulgaria. Audience Response to Western Broadcasts, August 1954–July 1955,’ [470.1].
86 Ibid.
87 Lovell, Russia in the Microphone Age, 147.
88 ‘Bulgaria. Audience Response to Western Broadcasts, August 1954–July 1955,’ [470.1].
89 Naga, ‘Ceausescu’s War Against Our Ears,’ 237.
90 ‘Penalties for Listening to Foreign Broadcasts,’ 11 September 1951. [Electronic Resource] HU OSA 300-1-2-6552; Records of RFE/RL Research Institute: General Records: Information Items; OSA, Budapest.
91 ‘Penalties for Listening to Foreign Broadcasts,’ HU OSA 300-1-2-6552.
92 ‘A Barber Arrested for Listening to Foreign Broadcast,’ 8 November 1951. [Electronic Resource] HU OSA 300-1-2-10620; Records of RFE/RL Research Institute: General Records: Information Items; OSA, Budapest.
93 ‘A Barber Arrested for Listening to Foreign Broadcast,’ HU OSA 300-1-2-10620.
94 ‘Poland. Audience Response to RFE_Voice of Free Poland. April 1954 through April 1955,’ 2, [469.20].
95 ‘Arrests for Listening to Foreign Radio Broadcasts,’ 9 May 1952. [Electronic Resource] HU OSA 300-1-2-19409; Records of RFE/RL Research Institute: General Records: Information Items; OSA, Budapest.
96 ‘Arrests for Listening to Foreign Radio Broadcasts,’ HU OSA 300-1-2-19409.
97 Ibid.
98 Russell Hill, ‘Guide for Interviewers,’ 3/1953, 1.
99 Ibid.
100 Russell Hill, ‘Guide for Interviewers,’ 3/1953, 2.
101 Russell Hill, ‘Guide for Interviewers,’ 3/1953, 1.
102 Russell Hill, ‘Guide for Interviewers,’ 3/1953, 8.
103 Belmonte, Selling the American Way, 7.
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Friederike Kind-Kovács
Friederike Kind-Kovács, Hannah Arendt Institute for Totalitarianism Studies at the TU Dresden; E-mail: [email protected]