Internet usage and cosmopolitanism in Europe: a multilevel analysis

Figures & data

Table 1. Outcomes CATPCA interest in foreign culture.

	Dimension 1	Dimension 2
Often watching foreign tv/movies	.587	−.437
Sometimes reading foreign newspapers	.630	−.444
Enjoying reading foreign books in original language	.600	−.441
Enjoying eating foreign cuisine	.543	−.230
Interested in arts and culture in other European countries	.717	.646
Interested in arts and culture in the rest of the world	.720	.643
Cronbach’s Alpha	.706	.382

Table 2. Outcome CATPCA cosmopolitan orientation.

	Dimension 1	Dimension 2
Interested in meeting people in Europe	.506	−.357
Willingness to learn a new language	.368	−.460
Future European citizenship	.411	−.381
Attachment to city/town/village	.251	.794
Attachment to region	.296	.802
Attachment to country	.349	.688
Attachment to Europe	.627	.127
Attachment to the world	.518	−.012
Cultural exchanges: feel more European	.695	−.134
Cultural exchanges: developing tolerance in the world	.671	−.170
Cultural exchanges: European contribution to more tolerance	.666	−.058
European culture: belief in common European culture	.530	.053
European culture: skepticism in common European culture	−.103	.118
European culture: belief positive effect globalization	.139	−.097
Cronbach’s Alpha	.738	.614

Figure 1. Interest in foreign culture.

Figure 2. Cosmopolitan orientation.

Figure 3. Internet usage.

Table 3. Multilevel analyses of interest in foreign culture and cosmopolitan orientation.

	Interest in foreign culture			Cosmopolitan orientation
	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3	Model 4	Model 5	Model 6
Individual level
Years education (0–20)	.060 (.003)***	.059 (.003)***	.059 (.003)***	.044 (.003)***	.045 (.003)***	.044 (.003)***
Female	.096 (.018)***	.105 (.018)***	.105 (.018)***	−.021 (.020)	−.025 (.020)	−.024 (.020)
Age/10	−.040 (.005)***	−.028 (.006)***	−.029 (.006)***	.025 (.006)***	.020 (.006)***	.020 (.006)***
Living in village	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
Living in small town	.057 (.022)**	.051 (.022)*	.049 (.022)*	−.080 (.023)**	−.078 (.023)**	−.081 (.023)**
Living in large town/city	.175 (.025)***	.168 (.025)***	.167 (.025)***	−.047 (.027)∼	−.046 (.027)^∼	−.045 (.027)∼
Income level (0–1)	.031 (.066)	−.022 (.067)	−.031 (.068)	.828 (.071)***	.843 (.073)***	.856 (.073)***
Intern. social network (0–1)	1.604 (.041)***	1.587 (.041)***	1.588 (.041)***	.649 (.044)***	.656 (.044)***	.660 (.044)***
Intern. travel + comm. (0–1)	1.410 (.043)***	1.339 (.046)***	1.340 (.044)***	.129 (.046)***	.169 (.047)***	.172 (.047)***
Cultural consumption (0–1)	1.969 (.042)***	1.925 (.043)***	1.927 (.043)***	1.708 (.045)***	1.727 (.046)***	1.725 (.046)***
Overall internet usage (0–1)		.058 (.031)	.058 (.031)		.013 (.033)	.013 (.033)
Internet downloading (0–1)		.028 (.047)	.030 (.047)		−.067 (.051)	−.067 (.051)
Internet buying (0/1)		.093 (.030)**	.090 (.030)**		−.090 (.032)**	−.088 (.032)**
Internet web2.0 (0–1)		.215 (.070)**	.216 (.070)**		−.067 (.075)	−.068 (.075)
Country level
Region: British Isles			−1.305 (.202)***			−.651 (.225)*
Region: Eastern Europe			−1.139 (.229)**			−.786 (.255)**
GDPpp			−.089 (.022)**			−.091 (.024)**
% people using Internet			.006 (.005)			−.001 (.005)
% people speaking English			.009 (.003)**			−.002 (.003)
Individualism score			.015 (.004)**			.014 (.004)**
Intercept	1.682 (.097)***	1.643 (.096)***	2.394 (.306)***	4.439 (.101)***	4.457 (.101)***	6.087 (.341)***
Variance country level	.127 (.044)**	.121 (.042)***	.018 (.007)**	.135 (.046)***	.131 (.045)***	.022 (.009)*
Variance individual level	1.940 (.018)***	1.937 (.018)***	1.936 (.018)***	2.263 (.021)***	2.262 (.020)***	2.262 (.020)***
Observation country level	29	29	29	29	29	29
Observations individual level	26,246	26,246	26,246	26,246	26,246	26,246
−2 restricted log-likelihood	85,418.037	85,371.693	85,336.762	89,172.961	89,157.254	89,125.604

Note: Weighted by Eurobarometer variable ‘W22 Weight Euro 27’. Maximum likelihood estimates.

***Significance: p < .001.

**Significance: p < .01.

*Significance: p < .05.

^∼Significance: p < .10.

Table 4. Overview significant cross-level interactions for interest in foreign culture.

Individual variable	Fixed effect	Country variable	Fixed effect	Cross-level interaction
Downloading	.700 (.291)*	GDPpp	−.063 (.020)**	−.026 (.012)*
Web2.0	1.032 (.392)**	Individualism	.014 (.004)**	−.012 (.006)*

Note: Full models are identical to models 3 and 6 of Table 3, except for inclusion cross-level interaction (entered one at a time) and random slope (unstructured variance components).

***p < .001.

**p < .01.

*p < .05.

^∼p < .10.

Table 5. Overview significant cross-level interactions for cosmopolitan orientation.

Individual variable	Fixed effect	Country variable	Fixed effect	Cross-level interaction
Freq internet usage	.677 (.326)^∼	Internet penetration	.005 (.005)	−.010 (.005)^∼
Freq internet usage	.606 (.309)^∼	GDPpp	−.076 (.022)**	−.024 (.013)^∼
Freq internet usage	.382 (.187)^∼	Eng proficiency	.003 (.003)	−.007 (.004)^∼
Freq internet usage	.816 (.297)**	Individualism	.018 (.004)***	−.012 (.005)*
Downloading	.727 (.359)^∼	Individualism	.013 (.004)**	−.012 (.005)*
Web2.0	.944 (.479)^∼	Internet penetration	.002 (.003)	−.016 (.005)^∼
Web2.0	1.129 (.423)*	GDPpp	−.076 (.024)**	−.051 (.018)**
Web2.0	.532 (.254)^∼	Eng proficiency	−.0004 (.003)	−.012 (.005)*
Web2.0	1.027 (.471)*	Individualism	.015 (.004)**	−.019 (.007)**

Note: Full models are identical to models 3 and 6 of Table 3, except for inclusion cross-level interaction (entered one at a time) and random slope (unstructured variance components).

***p < .001.

**p < .01.

*p < .05.

^∼p < .10.

Appendix Table A1. Mean scores for dependent and selected independent variables per EU country and country region.

	DVs		IVs: Individual level				IVs: Country level			Individualism
	cosmo	For_cult	Internet freq	downl	Buy	Web2.0	% Internet	GDPpp	% English
Western-Central	6.24 (1.61)	3.88 (1.98)	.50 (.44)	.13 (.26)	.23 (.41)	.09 (.18)	72.3 (6.2)	27.4 (2.5)	49.5 (14.7)	69.4 (5.2)
France	6.19	3.85	.47	.14	.23	.12	66.1	26.5	34.3	71
Belgium	6.55	4.14	.53	.16	.13	.10	64.4	28.7	51.8	75
Netherlands	6.14	4.86	.76	.24	.32	.11	85.8	31.0	87.6	80
Luxembourg	6.78	6.59	.56	.16	.26	.10	78.9	65.3	66.7	60
Germany (west)	6.32	3.77	.49	.11	.23	.06	75.2	26.5	51.1	67
Germany (east)	6.22	3.53	.43	.09	.19	.05	75.2	26.5	51.1	67
Austria	5.85	3.11	.42	.14	.18	.07	69.4	30.2	54.9	55
Nordic	6.55 (1.39)	4.82 (2.19)	.70 (.39)	.17 (.30)	.35 (.48)	.12 (.21)	82.5 (1.6)	28.4 (0.9)	78.2 (10.8)	69.7 (4.7)
Denmark	6.74	5.03	.73	.20	.38	.12	85.0	29.7	84.2	74
Finland	6.43	4.26	.64	.14	.19	.09	80.8	27.3	60.4	63
Sweden	6.50	5.02	.72	.17	.42	.15	82.0	28.2	85.0	71
British Isles	5.81 (1.76)	3.50 (1.82)	.54 (.44)	.11 (.23)	.21 (.41)	.06 (.15)	74.3 (3.3)	28.3 (1.4)	99.5 (0)	87.8 (4.5)
Great Britain	5.82	3.56	.55	.11	.22	.06	75.1	27.9	99.5	89
Ireland	5.82	2.79	.44	.10	.11	.05	61.2	33.7	99.5	70
Northern Ireland	5.68	3.10	.42	.12	.19	.08	75.1	27.9	99.5	89
Southern	6.16 (1.63)	3.18 (1.55)	.33 (.41)	.09 (.22)	.04 (.20)	.05 (.14)	45.8 (7.3)	23.3 (2.0)	28.2 (8.8)	59.0 (17.4)
Italy	6.14	3.08	.34	.08	.03	.03	40.8	24.3	29.3	76
Spain	6.15	3.28	.36	.12	.06	.07	55.1	23.9	20.7	51
Portugal	6.17	3.04	.28	.06	.04	.06	42.1	17.5	27.2	27
Greece	6.23	3.16	.20	.07	.03	.03	35.9	20.8	43.9	35
Cyprus	6.64	3.68	.27	.11	.04	.06	40.8	21.9	72.2	35
Malta	6.73	5.59	.43	.11	.11	.08	46.9	18.0	95.2	59
Slovenia	6.46	4.08	.43	.17	.07	.08	56.7	20.4	56.0	27
Eastern	6.45 (1.70)	3.01 (1.66)	.33 (.42)	.10 (.24)	.08 (.27)	.06 (.15)	44.2 (10.4)	12.2 (2.9)	23.8 (4.0)	52.0 (16.4)
Poland	6.63	2.99	.36	.10	.12	.07	48.6	12.4	25.9	60
Hungary	6.81	3.36	.30	.08	.08	.06	53.3	15.3	16.2	80
Czech Republic	6.09	2.95	.42	.13	.11	.08	51.9	17.5	23.8	58
Slovakia	6.28	3.35	.34	.09	.05	.07	61.8	14.7	24.2	52
Bulgaria	6.20	2.59	.21	.07	.01	.04	33.6	8.7	15.4	30
Romania	6.26	2.98	.28	.10	.03	.06	28.3	8.8	26.6	30
Baltic states	6.01 (1.71)	3.54 (2.00)	.44 (.45)	.14 (.27)	.06 (.24)	.11 (.20)	55.3 (6.4)	13.8 (0.9)	30.8 (6.1)	62.8 (4.5)
Estonia	6.18	4.28	.55	.19	.14	.20	66.2	15.7	41.4	60
Lithuania	5.92	3.04	.38	.11	.03	.09	49.9	13.6	25.7	60
Latvia	6.07	4.07	.47	.16	.07	.10	59.2	13.1	34.1	70

Between brackets standard deviations (for sake of readability only for regions). Individual scores and regional country scores are weighted results.