Separating truth from lies: comparing the effects of news media literacy interventions and fact-checkers in response to political misinformation in the US and Netherlands

Figures & data

Table 1. OLS- Regression model predicting the perceived accuracy of misinformation.

	Model I (n = 1,091)			Model II (n = 1,091)			Model III (n = 1,091)
	B	SE	β	B	SE	β	B	SE	β
(Constant)	4.02	.16		3.35	.16		3.49	.24
Fact-free communication	−.14	.07	−.06*	−.12	.08	−.05	−.35	.31	−.14
Country (Netherlands)				.13	.08	.05	−.01	.12	−.01
Anti-immigration				.24	.03	.28***	.14	.05	.16**
Fact-free × country							.25	.16	.09
Fact-free × anti-immigration							.16	.06	.30**
Adjusted R^2	.002			.070			.080
F	3.36			21.56***			14.44***
F for change in R^2				27.54***			4.66**

Note. Two-tailed tests. Unstandardized (B) and standardized (β) regression weights. Bootstrapping was employed.

*p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001.

Table 2. OLS- Regression model predicting levels of issue agreement with misinformation.

	Model I (n = 1,091)			Model II (n = 1,091)			Model III (n = 1,091)
	B	SE	β	B	SE	β	B	SE	β
(Constant)	4.80	.07		1.34	.14		1.47	.21
Fact-free communication	−.20	.09	−.07*	−.13	.06	−.04	−.33	.26	−.11
Country (Netherlands)				.24	.07	.08***	.14	.10	.05
Anti-immigration				.62	.03	.62***	.51	.04	.51***
Fact-free × country (NL)							.18	.13	.05
Fact-free × anti-immigration							.18	.05	.30***
Adjusted R^2	.004			.496			.504
F	5.29*			269.41**			159.32***
F for change in R^2				355.73***			6.79***

Note. Two-tailed tests. Unstandardized (B) and standardized (β) regression weights. Bootstrapping was employed.

*p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001.

Table 3. OLS- Regression model predicting the effects of corrective information on perceived message accuracy.

	Model I (n = 1,091)			Model II (n = 1,091)			Model III (n = 1,091)			Model IV (n = 1,091)
	B	SE	β	B	SE	β	B	SE	β	B	SE	β
(Constant)	2.98	.12		3.19	.16		2.97	.28		3.02	.29
Country (Netherlands)	.22	.07	.09**	.20	.07	.08**	.20	.07	.08*	.11	.19	.05
Anti-immigration	.20	.03	.23***	.20	.03	.23***	.25	.06	.29***	.25	.06	.29***
Fact-free communication				−.08	.08	−.03	−.08	.08	−.03	−.11	.08	−.04
Media literacy				−.25	.12	−.08*	.28	.38	.09	.22	.39	.07
Fact-check confirmation				.33	.13	.10**	.14	.39	.04	.08	.39	.02
Fact-check rebuttal				−.45	.13	−.13***	−.32	.39	.09	−.47	.40	−.14
Combined confirmation				.01	.13	.01	.39	.39	.11	.26	.40	.07
Combined rebuttal				−.46	.13	−.13***	.32	.39	.09	.35	.41	.10
Media literacy × immigration							−.12	.08	−.18	−.13	.08	−.19
FC refute × immigration							.03	.09	.03	.03	.09	.03
FC confirm × immigration							.04	.08	.06	.03	.09	.04
Combined confirm × immigration							−.09	.09	−.11	−.10	.09	−.12
Combined refute × immigration							−.18	.09	−.24*	−.18	.09	.24*
Media literacy × country (NL)										.18	.25	.04
FC refute × country (NL)										−.14	.25	−.03
FC confirm × country (NL)										.21	.26	.05
Combined confirm × country (NL)										.31	.26	.07
Combined refute × country (NL)										−.06	.26	−.01
	.063			.109			.114			.114
F	37.63***			17.72***			11.83***			8.80***
F for change in R^2				10.43***			2.24*			.95

Note. Two-tailed tests. Unstandardized (B) and standardized (β) regression weights. Bootstrapping was employed.

*p<0.05**p<0.01; ***p<0.001.

Table 4. OLS- Regression model predicting the effects of corrective information on issue agreement.

	Model I (n = 1,091)			Model II (n = 1,091)			Model III (n = 1,091)			Model IV (n = 1,091)
	B	SE	β	B	SE	β	B	SE	β	B	SE	β
(Constant)	1.71	.10		1.89	.25		1.89	.25		1.90	.25
Country (Netherlands)	.16	.06	.06*	.14	.06	.05*	.14	.06	.05*	.14	.16	.05
Anti-immigration	.69	.02	.69***	.69	.05	.69***	.69	.05	.69***	.69	.05	.69***
Fact-free communication				−.15	.07	−.05*	−.15	.07	−.05*	−.17	.07	−.06
Media literacy				−.11	.11	−.03	−.16	.33	−.04	−.14	.34	−.04
Fact-check confirmation				.16	.11	.04	.71	.33	.19*	.67	.34	.18*
Fact-check rebuttal				−.26	.11	−.07*	−.58	.31	−.15*	−.50	.35	−.13
Combined confirmation				−.10	.11	−.03	.18	.34	.05	.09	.35	.02
Combined rebuttal				−.35	.11	−.09***	−.60	.34	−.15*	−.57	.35	−.14
Media literacy × immigration							.01	.07	.01	.02	.07	.02
FC refute × immigration							.08	.08	.09	.08	.08	.09
FC confirm × immigration							−.13	.07	−.15	−.14	.07	−.15
Combined confirm × immigration							−.07	.08	−.08	−.07	.08	−.08
Combined refute × immigration							.06	.08	.07	.06	.08	.07
Media literacy × country (NL)										−.09	.22	−.02
FC refute × country (NL)										−.17	.22	−.03
FC confirm × country (NL)										.13	.22	.03
Combined confirm × country (NL)										.19	.22	.04
Combined refute × country (NL)										−.06	.23	−.01
Adjusted R^2	.481			.493			.496			.496
F	505.75***			133.65***			83.54***			60.49***
F for change in R^2				5.46***			2.19*			.79

Note. Two-tailed tests. Unstandardized (B) and standardized (β) regression weights. Bootstrapping was employed.

*p<0.05; ***p<0.001.