Investigating how the interaction between individual and circumstantial determinants influence the emergence of digital poverty: a post-pandemic survey among families with children in England

Figures & data

Table 1. Sample demographics (n = 1988).

		count	%
Gender	Male	1014	51.0
	Female	974	49.0
Age	20–24	22	1.1
	25–34	640	32.2
	35–44	783	39.4
	45–55	543	27.3
Education	Some high school. no diploma	72	3.6
	High school graduate	414	20.8
	Some college credit. no degree	595	29.9
	Bachelor's degree	663	33.4
	Master's degree	200	10.1
	Doctorate	44	2.2
Family Income	Under £10k	114	5.7
	£11k-25k	505	25.4
	£26k-50k	838	42.2
	£51k-100k	456	22.9
	Over £100k	75	3.8
Parents’ Status	Single parent	375	18.9
	Both legal parents live together	1497	75.3
	Divorced or separated	116	5.8

Table 2. Devices and Connectivity Index (DCI).

How often to use the following devices to access the Internet?	Never	Rarely	Sometimes	Often	Always	Total
Smartphone	0.4	1.2	3.1	21.4	73.9	100.0
Personal Computer	12.5	9.9	23.1	29.5	25.0	100.0
Public or other people’s computers	46.4	29.0	13.4	6.4	4.8	100.0
Tablet	14.8	12.9	27.0	25.9	19.4	100.0
TV	11.3	10.0	21.7	25.8	31.2	100.0
Smartwatch	45.8	9.6	15.9	13.2	15.5	100.0

Table 3. Access Index (AI)

	Access
I can find and open different applications/programmes on a device	0.729
I can turn on a device and log in to any accounts/profiles	0.770
I can connect a device to a Wi-Fi network	0.722
I am able to use the internet to complete all the tasks I want to do	0.707

Variance explained = 53.5%; Kaiser – Meyer – Olkin (KMO) test = .799; Bartlett’s test, p < .000.

Because their factor loadings were lower than ± 0.6, the following variables were removed from the initial set: (a) ‘I am unable to update and change a password when prompted’; (b) ‘I am unable to open an Internet browser to access websites’; (c) ‘There are some things I want to do online that I am unable to do due to slow or no internet.’

Table 4. Communicating Index (CoI).

Communicating	Communication expertise
I cannot communicate with others digitally using email or other messaging applications (e.g., WhatsApp or Messenger)	0.860
I cannot communicate with others using video tools (e.g., FaceTime or Skype)	0.856
I cannot post content on social media platforms (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, or Snapchat) for example messages, photographs, videos etc.	0.881

Variance explained = 51.4%; Kaiser – Meyer – Olkin (KMO) test = .792; Bartlett’s test, p < .000.

Three variables were eliminated because their factor loadings were less than ± 0.6: (a) I can send documents to others by attaching them to emails; (b) I can create an email account; (c) I can use word processing applications to create documents (e.g., a CV or a letter).

Table 5. Transacting Index (TI).

Transacting	Transacting expertise
I can set up an account online that enables me to buy goods or services (e.g., Amazon account, eBay, John Lewis etc.)	0.704
I cannot use credit/debit cards or other forms of online payment to buy goods/services online (e.g., PayPal, WorldPay)	−0.765
I can access and use public services online, including filling in forms (e.g., vehicle tax, voting registration, ordering repeat prescriptions, booking doctor appointments)	0.747
I cannot upload documents and photographs when this is required to complete an online transaction	−0.760
I can manage my money and transactions online securely, via websites or Apps (e.g., bank account)	0.767

Variance explained = 57.0%; Kaiser – Meyer – Olkin (KMO) test = .741; Bartlett’s test, p < .000.

Table 6. Handing Information and Content Index (HICI).

Handing Information and Content	HIC expertise
I can organise my information and content using files and folders	0.790
I can use bookmarks to save and retrieve websites and information	0.817
I can store information online and access content from a different device (e.g., using the Cloud)	0.838

Variance explained = 52.1%; Kaiser – Meyer – Olkin (KMO) test = .796; Bartlett’s test, p < .000.

Three variables were eliminated because their factor loadings were lower than ± 0.6: (a) ‘I can use search engines to find the information I am looking for’; (b) ‘I cannot recognise what information or content may, or may not, be trustworthy on websites/apps’; (c) ‘I cannot use the Internet to stream or download entertainment content (e.g., films, music, games or books)’.

Table 7. Safety Index (SaI).

Safety	Safety expertise
I can respond to requests for authentication (e.g., reactivate an account when I've forgotten my password)	0.744
I am careful with what I share online as I know that online activity produces a permanent record that can be accessed by others	0.780
I can keep the information I use to access my online accounts secure, by using different and secure passwords for websites and accounts	0.789
I make sure not to share or use other people's data or intellectual property without their consent	0.729
I can identify secure websites by looking for the padlock and ‘https’ in the address bar	0.750
I can update my computer security systems when necessary to prevent viruses and other risks	0.692

Variance explained = 51.6%; Kaiser – Meyer – Olkin (KMO) test = .885; Bartlett’s test, p < .000.

Two variables were discarded because its factor loading was lower than ± 0.6: (a) ‘I cannot recognise and avoid suspicious links in email, websites, social media messages and pop-ups and know that clicking on these links is a risk’ and (b) I cannot set privacy settings on my social media and other accounts

Table 8. Capability Index (CaI).

Skills	Capability
Communicating (CoI)	0.865
Transacting (TI)	0.891
Handing Information and Content (HICI)	0.787
Safety (SaI)	0.819

Variance explained = 71.1%; Kaiser – Meyer – Olkin (KMO) test = .765; Bartlett’s test, p < .000.

Table 9. Motivation Index (MI).

	Motivation
I don’t enjoy trying out new and innovative technologies	0.772
I prefer not to use technology unless I have to	0.879
Technologies make my work harder	0.839
My digital skills don’t fit my everyday needs	0.878

Variance explained = 57.7%; Kaiser – Meyer – Olkin (KMO) test = .817; Bartlett’s test, p < .000.

Table 10. Support Index (SuI).

	Mean
I need support to carry out some tasks on the Internet/ use my digital devices	3.17
During the pandemic, I asked for support to use my digital devices	2.66

Table 11. Multiple Regression between Circumstantial Determinants and Individual Determinants.

	Model 1 – DCI R^2=  .255		Model 2 – AI R^2=  .172		Model 3 – CaI R^2=  .174		Model 4 – MI R^2=  .183		Model 5 – SuI R^2=  .151
	B	S.E.	B	S.E.	B	S.E.	B	S.E.	B	S.E.
(Constant)	70.003*	15.163	33.894**	16.990	24.354	14.393	−4.654	20.281	9.235*	2.539
No. of children	-.958	1.144	1.362	1.282	1.242	1.084	2.634	1.531	-.186	.192
Location (Rural)	−2.927	2.472	3.102	2.770	-.180	2.346	1.005	3.306	-.429	.414
Annual household income after taxes	3.356**	1.521	3.775**	1.704	3.614**	1.460	4.573**	2.034	-.202	.255
Parent status (living together)	−3.376	2.860	−6.991*	3.205	−4.631	2.730	−8.657**	3.826	.574	.479
No. of children with disability	.251	2.006	−10.558*	2.248	−7.343*	1.902	−9.694*	2.684	.728**	.336
Members of your family with any long-term health problems (Yes)	.697	2.289	2.669	2.565	2.816	2.172	.811	3.062	.355	.383
Age mean	-.424**	.147	-.086	.165	.034	.140	.136	.197	-.012	.025
Family Education	5.806*	1.344	3.938*	1.506	1.815	1.274	-.558	1.798	.105	.225
Gender (female)	−2.345	2.451	5.255	2.746	2.818	2.341	1.517	3.278	-.232	.410
Money spent on digital technology on average in a month	2.724**	1.346	1.247	1.509	−2.063	1.277	−2.399	1.801	.616**	.225
Frequency of Internet use	−2.379	1.948	3.324	2.182	7.359*	1.846	12.019*	2.605	−1.237*	.326

*Sig. < .001 ** Sig. < .05.

Table 12. Differences in Individual Determinants across geographical areas – Tukey HSD post-test.

Dependent Variable	Reference category (I)	Where do you live? (J)	Mean Difference (I-J)	Std. Error
DCI	London	Northeast (England)	9.09973*	1.94582
		Northwest (England)	8.29003*	1.63995
		Yorkshire and The Humber East Midlands (England)	11.22864*	1.65556
		West Midlands (England)	7.05129*	1.73027
		East of England	9.70933*	1.83715
		Southeast (England)	9.28503*	1.68916
		Southwest (England)	11.18972*	1.79451
Access	London	Northeast (England)	−3.44456	2.09928
		Northwest (England)	−2.20625	1.76929
		Yorkshire and The Humber East Midlands (England)	−3.26087	1.78612
		West Midlands (England)	-.18923	1.86672
		East of England	−4.87726	1.98204
		Southeast (England)	−1.27071	1.82238
		Southwest (England)	−3.46642	1.93604
Capabilities	London	Northeast (England)	−3.31559	1.90350
		Northwest (England)	−4.29153	1.60192
		Yorkshire and The Humber East Midlands (England)	−4.45134	1.61603
		West Midlands (England)	−1.98299	1.68762
		East of England	−5.92462*	1.78749
		Southeast (England)	−4.77359	1.64471
		Southwest (England)	−5.58046*	1.75490
Motivation	London	Northeast (England)	−3.60052	2.42014
		Northwest (England)	−4.32977	2.03972
		Yorkshire and The Humber East Midlands (England)	−5.48289	2.05912
		West Midlands (England)	−1.89993	2.15204
		East of England	−4.74388	2.28499
		Southeast (England)	−5.95202	2.10092
		Southwest (England)	−6.13116	2.23195
Support	London	Northeast (England)	.76699	.30021
		Northwest (England)	1.00648*	.25302
		Yorkshire and The Humber East Midlands (England)	1.09969*	.25543
		West Midlands (England)	.31969	.26695
		East of England	1.00955*	.28344
		Southeast (England)	1.07462*	.26061
		Southwest (England)	1.42170*	.27686

*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 13. Gender and online activities – Tukey HSD post-test.

	Reference (I)	Gender (J)	Mean Difference (I-J)	Std. Error
I have used the Internet to access online promotions and deals to save money	Female	Other	.835	1.105
		male	.314*	.087
I have been able to keep in touch with family and friends more	Female	Other	.388	1.205
		male	.455*	.094
I have accessed online medical consultations	Female	Other	-.833	1.992
		male	.148	.162
I have not preferred working from home	Female	Other	1.348	2.427
		male	-.706*	.180
I have supported my children's online education	Female	Other	.482	1.181
		male	.744*	.093
I have thought more about growing and progressing my career through digital training	Female	Other	-.380	1.802
		male	−1.048*	.148

*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 14. Correlation between life satisfaction and individual determinants.

		Capabilities	Motivation	Support	Access	Connectivity
Life Satisfaction	Pearson Correlation	.049*	-.008	.106**	.066**	.271**
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.030	.721	.000	.003	.000
	N	1947	1988	1988	1988	1988