Transnational families negotiating migration and care life cycles across nation-state borders

Figures & data

Figure 1. Phases of transnational family migration and care trajectories between source & destination countries. Source: Author's depiction.

Table 1. Distinguishing transnational families.

Bi-national families	Multi-national families
Family sphere
Sense of familyhood and family care
Across state borders involving economic & emotional transfers	Across state borders involving economic & emotional transfers
Location of members
Resident in source & destination countries	Resident in source & possibly multiple destination countries forming an interactive network of care exchange
Life cycle cultural practices (2 variants)
1 Reliance on home country norms:	2 Highly variable & eclectic practices of cultural fusion:
marriage – strong preference to marry spouse via extended family networks of home country & major reason for return migration to find spouse childbirth & childrearing – customs of home country are adhered to in varying degrees in destination country language – often home country language spoken within household in the destination country schooling & religious training – based partially on practices of home country death – preference for ritual and burial practices of home country	between source & destination country norms usually related to family members settling in more than one destination country, as well as borrowing from other national cultures rather than source & destination countries marriage – spouse selection is more open and could be a spouse originating from the destination country or another foreign-born person, or polygamous marriages spanning two or more spouses in separate countries childbirth – name may be chosen from home country whereas childrearing based on fusion of home & destination country practices schooling & religious training – generally guided by practices prevailing in the destination country death – ritual & burial practices primarily of destination country
Cultural identity
attitudes & norms – associated with the home country which tend to be inculcated in family values & daily lives	attitudes & norms – sense of variable & fluid relativity regarding family norms, tending to foreground the norms of the country they reside in.
State sphere
Transnational existence
work – in destination country & primary residential identity in source country imparts an obligation to ‘return home’ at specified time or under specified alterations of conditions.	work – in destination country & primary residential identity in destination country or other non-source or non-natal country. Absence of an intention or obligation to ‘return home’. Location of ‘felt home’ may be debatable.
Migration status
temporary documented or insecure undocumented immigration status.	permanent or temporary documented immigration status
Passport
generally, source country single passport holder	single destination country or multiple country passport-holder. May not have passport of destination country, but as expatriate will hold residence & work rights.
Market Sphere
Livelihood prospects
circumscribed by immigration status & global market competitiveness of their labour	multi-national opportunities.
Labour competitiveness
low skilled workers from poor countries taking advantage of the income gap between poor & affluent countries. Resentment & political backlash may arise if migrants out-compete nationals	educated & skilled workers with strong employment prospects globally in their field of expertise or unique skills not necessarily requiring high levels of education & training, that fill niches of labour scarcity.

Source: Author's construct.

Figure 2. Remittance flows and overseas development aid to developing countries, 1990–2015. Source: World Bank (2017).

Figure 3. Evolution of transnational family life cycle and intergenerational exchange in relation to immigration status. Source: Author's depiction.

World Bank. 2017. Migration and Remittances Factbook 2016. Accessed 13 March 2018. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/infographic/2017/04/21/trends-inmigration-and-remittances-2017

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