Beyond appreciation and rejection: reactions of Europeans without a migration background to being an ethnic minority

Figures & data

Figure 1. Integration Matrix (Crul and Lelie 2019): potential types of responses of people without a migration background to being a minority in majority-minority contexts.

Table 1. Five-cluster solution cluster analysis, cluster centres and distribution (n = 2267).

				Appreciation of diversity	Inter-ethnic contact
Cluster	Cluster name	N	rel. freq.	Mean	Mean
Cluster 1	Segregated sceptics	101	4.5	1.5	1.9
Cluster 2	Integrated enthusiasts	949	41.9	4.4	3.6
Cluster 3	Integrated sceptics	86	3.8	1.5	4.4
Cluster 4	Moderates	258	11.4	2.8	3.4
Cluster 5	Segregated enthusiasts	873	38.5	4.0	1.8

Figure 2. Summary of regression results: main determinants of cluster membership.

Table 2. Determinants of cluster membership: five multi-level logistic regression models (n = 1458, five cities, 164 neighbourhoods).

	Segregated sceptics		Integrated enthusiasts		Integrated sceptics		Moderates		Segregated enthusiasts
Individual effects	B (SE)	AME (SE)	B (SE)	AME (SE)	B (SE)	AME (SE)	B (SE)	AME (SE)	B (SE)	AME (SE)
Gender (male)	.44 (.30)	.01 (.01)	−.44 (.12)***	−.09 (.02)***	.23 (.31)	.01 (.01)	.38 (.19)*	.03 (.02)*	.24 (.12)	.05 (.02)
Age	.04 (.03)	.00 (.00)	−.05 (.01)***	−.01 (.00)***	−.03 (.03)	−.00 (.00)	.00 (.02)	.00 (.00)	.04 (.01)**	.01 (.00)**
Perceived change in migrants	.20 (.18)	.01 (.01)	.03 (.08)	.01 (.02)	−.02 (.19)	−.00 (.01)	.12 (.12)	.01 (.01)	−.16 (.08)*	−.03 (.02)*
Economic threat	.32 (.12)**	.01 (.00)**	−.16 (.05)**	−.03 (.01)**	.12 (.13)	.00 (.00)	−.04 (.07)	−.00 (.01)	.04 (.05)	.01 (.01)
Cultural threat	.45 (.12)***	.02 (.00)***	−.24 (.04)***	−.05 (.01)***	.59 (.13)***	.02 (.00)***	.24 (.06)***	.02 (.01)***	−.02 (.04)	−.00 (.01)
Socio-economic status
Education	.02 (.10)	.00 (.00)	−.08 (.05)	−.02 (.01)	−.09 (.10)	−.00 (.00)	−.12 (.06)	−.01 (.01)	.15 (.05)**	.03 (.01)**
Income	.17 (.13)	.01 (.00)	−.09 (.06)	−.02 (.01)	−.18 (.15)	−.01 (.00)	−.12 (.08)	−.01 (.01)	.16 (.06)**	.03 (.01)**
Exposure to diversity
Neighbourhood tenure	−.03 (.02)	−.00 (.00)	.01 (.01)	.00 (.00)	−.01 (.02)	−.00 (.00)	.04 (.01)**	.00 (.00)**	−.02 (.01)	−.00 (.00)
City tenure	.01 (.02)	.00 (.00)	.02 (.01)	.00 (.00)	−.01 (.02)	−.00 (.00)	−.00 (.01)	−.00 (.00)	−.01 (.01)	−.00 (.00)
Feeling like a minority	−.37 (.33)	−.01 (.01)	.69 (.15)***	.14 (.03)***	1.96 (.45)***	.06 (.01)***	.34 (.20)	.03 (.02)	−1.32 (.16)***	−.27 (.03)***
Random effects	Variance component		Variance component		Variance component		Variance component		Variance component
City (intercepts)	00. (.00)		.05 (.06)*		00. (.00)		.01 (.04)*		00. (.00)
Neighbourhood (intercepts)	.18 (.29)*		.15 (.08)*		.09 (.37)*		.29 (.22)*		.13 (.08)*
AIC	401.90		1769.44		330.02		958.46		1781.81

* p < .050; ** p < .010; *** p < .000.

Individual clusters of the cluster analysis serve as the categorical dependent variable.

Reference category: all other respondents.

Table A1. Number of neighbourhoods per city.

	Amsterdam	Antwerp	Malmö	Rotterdam	Vienna
Number of neighbourhoods	42	27	31	36	30

Table A2. Distribution variable integrate/segregation.

How many of the people whom you are in touch with have a migration background? – Neighbours	Frequency	Percent
(1) almost none	201	8.9
(2) some	754	33.3
(3) about half	723	31.9
(4) the majority	416	18.4
(5) almost all	173	7.6
Total	2267	100.0

Table A3. Distribution variable appreciation/rejection of ethnic diversity.

It is an enrichment to learn more about people from other cultures in the neighbourhood	Frequency	Percent
(1) strongly disagree	94	4.1
(2) disagree	135	6.0
(3) neither agree nor disagree	405	17.9
(4) agree	1082	47.7
(5) strongly agree	551	24.3
Total	2267	100.0

Table A4. Variable net household income with initial answer categories per country in parentheses.

Recoded answer category	Amsterdam/Rotterdam	Antwerp	Malmö	Vienna
1	(1) up to 1.350EUR	(1) up to 1400EUR	(1) up to 11.999SEK	(1) less than 1100EUR
			(2) 12.000–15.999SEK	(2) 1100–1500EUR
2	(2) 1.350–1.900EUR	(2) 1400–2100EUR	(3) 16.000–19.999SEK	(3) 1500–1900EUR
			(4) 20.000–23.999SEK	(4) 1900–2300EUR
3	(3) 1.900–3.100EUR	(3) 2100–3740EUR	(5) 24.000–26.999SEK	(5) 2300–2700EUR
			(6) 27.000–30.999SEK	(6) 2700–3200EUR
			(7) 31.000–35.999SEK	(7) 3200–3800EUR
4	(4) 3.100–4.600EUR	(4) 3740–5580EUR	(8) 36.000–42.999SEK	(8) 3800–4600EUR
			(9) 43.000–52.999SEK	(9) 4600–5900EUR
5	(5) 4.600EUR or more	(5) 5580EUR or more	(10) 53.000 or more	(10) more than 5900EUR

Table A5. Items for the economic threat scale (Cronbach’s Alpha = .894).

	Mean	SD
Would you say it is generally good or bad for [country]’s economy that people from other countries come to live here?	7.20	2.45
Would you say that people who come to live in this country generally take jobs away in [country] or generally help create new jobs?	7.25	2.29
Most people who come to live here work and pay taxes. They also use health and welfare services. On balance, do you think people who come here take out more than they put in or put in more than they take out?	5.51	2.38

Table A6. Items for the cultural threat scale (Cronbach’s Alpha = .840).

	Mean	SD
Would you say that [country]’s cultural life is generally undermined or enriched by people coming to live here from other countries?	7.10	2.89
Is [country] made a worse or a better place to live by people coming to live here from other countries?	6.72	2.58
Is [country]’s quality of education made worse or better by the presence of children with a migration background?	5.48	2.47

Figure A1. Elbow Method to determine numbers of clusters within cluster sum of squares (WCSS).

Crul, M., and F. Lelie. 2019. The ‘Integration’ of People of Dutch Descent in Superdiverse Neighbourhoods, 191–207. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-96041-8_10

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