Different vulnerability indicators for psychosis and their neuropsychological characteristics in the Northern Finland 1986 Birth Cohort

Figures & data

Figure 1. The Northern Finland 1986 Birth Cohort. ^aThe Finnish Hospital Discharge Register. ^bThe Social Insurance Institute of Finland. ^cOne of the 13 subjects did not fulfill the criteria for psychotic disorder. ^dSee the text and Veijola et al. (2010) for criteria. ^eNot meeting the criteria for any other group that were invited. ^fClinical risk for psychosis. ^gFamilial risk for psychosis. ^hSee the text for exclusion criteria.

TABLE 1 Demographic data on research groups

	FR (n = 62)		CR (n = 20)		Controls (n = 69)		Psychosis (n = 13)^a		F or χ^2	p
Age, years [M (SD)]	22.8	(0.7)	22.7	(0.9)	22.7	(0.8)	23.1	(0.8)	F = 0.8	.523
Gender, female [N (%)]	34	(54.8)	15	(75.0)	42	(60.9)	7	(53.8)	χ^2 = 2.8	.427
FSIQ [M (SD)]	110.7	(19.4)	117.5	(23.7)	112.6	(17.9)	106.1	(16.7)	F = 1.1	.366
Handedness, right [N (%)]	54	(87.1)	20	(100)	65	(94.2)	13	(100)	χ^2=5.7	.128
Education									χ^2=9.7	.021
Elementary [N (%)]	26	(41.9)	8	(40.0)	20	(29.0)	9	(75.0)
High-school [N (%)]	36	(58.1)	12	(60.0)	49	(71.0)	3	(25.0)
Note. FR = familial risk for psychosis. CR = clinical risk for psychosis. FSIQ = estimated full-scale intelligence quotient based on Vocabulary and Matrix Reasoning from Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Third Edition (WAIS–III). ^aone of the psychosis subjects did not provide information about education level.

TABLE 2 Neurocognitive performance of research groups

					ANOVA ^a
Neurocognitive domain and test variables	FR (n = 62)	CR (n = 20)	Controls (n = 69)	Psychosis (n = 13)	F	p	Post hoc comparisons with Tukey correction ^b
Verbal and nonverbal intellectual ability
Vocabulary: Total raw score [M (SD)]	44.6 (9.6)	47.9 (11.9)	45.0 (10.3)	42.2 (9.2)	0.93	.44
Matrix Reasoning: Total raw score [M (SD)]	19.2 (3.4)	19.9 (4.2)	19.7 (3.1)	18.7 (3.2)	0.41	.60
Learning and Memory
Logical Memory: Immediate, total raw score [M (SD)]	22.8 (6.6)	24.3 (8.3)	24.7 (6.6)	18.4 (8.9)	3.1	.02	psych < ctrl*
Logical Memory: Delayed, total raw score [M (SD)]	20.7 (6.3)	22.8 (8.3)	22.5 (6.7)	16.7 (8.2)	2.8	.03	psych < ctrl*
CVLT: Total score, Trials 1–5 ^c [M (SD)]	60.6 (9.1)	61.9 (7.6)	60.7 (8.2)	51.5 (12.7)	2.7	.05
CVLT: Long delay recall [M(SD)]	13.0 (2.7)	12.6 (2.5)	13.3 (2.3)	10.5 (4.0)	2.5	.07
PAL: Total errors [Md (IQR)]	3.0 (1.8–10.3)	2.5 (1.0–5.8)	3.0 (2.0–7.0)	4.5 (2.3–16.0)	2.7	.39
Working memory/attention
Digit Span: Span Forwards [M(SD)]	5.9 (0.9)	5.8 (0.9)	6.1 (1.0)	5.8 (0.6)	0.86	.46
Sternberg Task: Total errors ^d [Md (IQR)]	6.0 (4.0–9.0)	8.0 (3.8–10.0)	6.0 (4.0–9.0)	8.0 (6.0–10.5)	0.38	.56
RVP: A′ [M(SD)]	0.88 (0.05)	0.90 (0.06)	0.90 (0.05)	0.87 (0.04)	2.4	.08
Fine motor function
GP: Time (s) for dominant hand [M (SD)]	64.5 (8.0)	66.3 (10.2)	61.4 (7.8)	70.0 (9.6)	4.9	.003	psych > ctrl**
GP: Time (s) for nondominant hand [Md (IQR)]	66.5 (62.3–73.0)	69.5 (60.0–77.5)	65.0 (60.5–72.5)	81.5 (64.5–89.8)	5.1	.049	psych > CR*, FR*, ctrl*
Executive functioning/working memory
Digit Span: Span Backwards [M (SD)]	4.8 (0.9)	4.7 (0.9)	5.1 (0.9)	4.5 (0.8)	2.0	.11
SOC: Problems solved in min. moves [M (SD)]	9.7 (1.8)	9.7 (1.8)	10.2 (1.5)	9.7 (1.7)	1.6	.24
Semantic Fluency: Total score [M (SD)]	53.6 (11.0)	53.7 (12.3)	54.6 (10.8)	46.5 (10.8)	1.9	.13
SWM: Strategy [M (SD)]	29.3 (6.0)	29.3 (5.6)	28.5 (6.0)	32.1 (4.3)	1.4	.23
SWM: Total between errors [Md (IQR)]	8.0 (2.8–20.0)	3.0 (1.0–16.5)	8.0 (2.0–16.5)	20.0 (5.0–24.5)	0.9	.25
Decision making/reflection impulsivity
IST: Mean no. opened: Fixed win condition ^e [M (SD)]	15.5 (5.6)	20.0 (4.4)	15.9 (5.4)	16.9 (7.9)	1.7	.20
Mean no. opened: Decreasing win condition [M (SD)]	12.1 (4.8)	12.0 (4.8)	11.1 (4.5)	9.3 (3.6)	0.6	.56
Note. Medians, interquartile ranges (IQRs), and Kruskal–Wallis test scores are used for four non-normally distributed cognitive test variables. FR = familial risk for psychosis; CR = clinical risk for psychosis; psych = psychosis group; ctrl = control group; CVLT = California Verbal Learning Test; PAL = Paired Associates Learning; GP=Grooved Pegboard; SWM = Spatial Working Memory; SOC = Stockings of Cambridge; RVP = Rapid Visual Information Processing; IST = Information Sampling Task.
^aUnivariate analysis of variance;
^bPost hoc comparisons with a Tukey HSD (honestly significant difference) correction for multiple comparisons and comparing all four groups;
^cpsychosis (n = 8), CR (n = 12), familial risk (n = 34), controls (n = 37);
^dpsychosis (n = 9), CR (n = 18), familial risk (n = 43), controls (n = 50);
^epsychosis (n = 5), CR (n = 9), familial risk (n = 28), controls (n = 32).
*p < .05. **p < .01.

Figure 2. Neuropsychological profiles of familial risk, clinical risk, and psychosis group compared to controls. CVLT = California Verbal Learning Test; RVP = Rapid Visual Information Processing; SOC = Stockings of Cambridge; SWM = Spatial Working Memory.

Veijola , J. , Jääskeläinen , E. , Mäki , P. , Koivukangas , J. , Jones , P. Murray , G. 2010 . Detection of subjects with prodromal syndrome for psychosis in a general population sample . Manuscript in preparation ,

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