Fear of COVID-19 among patients with prior SARS-CoV-2 infection: A cross-sectional study in Estonian family practices

Figures & data

Figure 1. Total COVID-19 cases in Estonian regions. The left map shows data from 15 March 2020. The right map shows data from 17 July 2021 [10].

Figure 2. Flowchart showing the study recruitment process. Abbreviations. n: number; FCV-19S: Fear of COVID-19 Scale.

Table 1. Level of fear of study participants (n = 341) according to sociodemographic characteristics.

		High COVID-19 fear, n (%)		Bivariate analysis
Variable	Subgroup	Yes	No	OR (95% CI)	p Value
Sociodemographic characteristics
Sex	Male	45 (32.9)	92 (67.1)	1
	Female	98 (48.0)	106 (52.0)	1.89 (1.21–2.96)	0.006
Age	≤50 years	56 (32.0)	119 (68.0)	1
	51–60	34 (42.5)	46 (57.5)	1.57 (0.91–2.71)	0.105
	≥61	53 (61.6)	33 (38.4)	3.41 (1.99–5.85)	<0.001
Education*	<10 years	13 (56.5)	10 (43.5)	1
	10–12 years	79 (46.8)	90 (53.2)	0.68 (0.28–1.62)	0.381
	> 12 years	50 (34.0)	97 (66.0)	0.40 (0.16–0.97)	0.042
Nationality^†	Estonian	92 (40.9)	133 (59.1)	1
	Other	50 (43.5)	65 (56.5)	1.11 (0.71–1.75)	0.647
Household members^‡	1	17 (34.7)	32 (65.3)	1
	2	67 (52.3)	61 (47.7)	2.07 (1.04–4.09)	0.037
	≥3	58 (35.6)	105 (64.4)	1.04 (0.53–2.03)	0.909
Place of residence	City	111 (41.0)	160 (59.0)	1
	Rural	31 (45.6)	37 (54.4)	1.21 (0.71–2.06)	0.489
Children < 18 years in household	No	100 (45.1)	122 (54.9)	1
	Yes	39 (34.5)	74 (65.5)	0.64 (0.40–1.03)	0.065
Occupation^§	Working	101 (38.0)	165 (62.0)	1
	Other	40 (56.3)	31 (43.7)	2.11 (1.24–3.58)	0.006

Abbreviations. n: number; SD: standard deviation; OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval. Statistically significant values are marked in bold.

Explanation to footnotes: *Education was trichotomised into: < 10 years (primary school), 10–12 years (secondary and vocational school) and >12 years (higher or university education). ^†Nationality was defined as Estonian or Other, the majority of other classified themselves as Russian (n = 94). ^‡Household members were categorised according to the numbers of members, where 1 meant living alone. ^§ Occupation was classified as working (full time or part time) or other (unemployed, retired, maternity/paternity leave, sick leave due to chronic illness, studying, on leave, military service).

Table 2. Level of fear of study participants (n = 341) according to self-reported health status before COVID-19, self-reported COVID-19 severity and experiencing long-COVID.

		High COVID-19 fear, n (%)		Bivariate logistic regression
Variable	Subgroup	Yes	No	OR (95% CI)	p Value
Pre-COVID-19 health status
Comorbidities (EHIF)	None	124 (40.5)	182 (59.5)	1
	Any	18 (54.6)	15 (45.5)	1.76 (0.86–3.63)	0.125
Self-rated health status	Very good	32 (33.7)	63 (66.3)	1
	Good	62 (38.3)	100 (61.7)	1.22 (0.72–2.07)	0.461
	Average	43 (61.4)	27 (38.6)	3.14 (1.65–5.96)	<0.001
	Bad/very bad	4 (36.4)	7 (63.6)	1.13 (0.31–4.13)	0.859
Self-rated physical activity	≥2 times/week	83 (36.7)	143 (63.3)	1
	Once or less/week	30 (44.1)	38 (55.9)	1.36 (0.78–2.36)	0.273
	Inactive	21 (63.6)	12 (36.4)	3.02 (1.41–6.44)	0.004
	Unable due to injury or illness	8 (61.5)	5 (38.5)	2.77 (0.87–8.70)	0.084
Self-reported symptoms within 6 months before COVID-19
Fatigue	No	99 (37.8)	163 (62.2)	1
	Yes	43 (56.6)	33 (43.4)	2.15 (1.28–3.60)	0.004
Sadness	No	119 (40.2)	177 (59.8)	1
	Yes	22 (52.4)	20 (47.6)	1.64 (0.86–3.13)	0.137
Sleeping problems	No	81 (40.9)	117 (59.1)	1
	Yes	62 (43.7)	80 (56.3)	1.12 (0.72–1.73)	0.612
Anxiety	No	100 (40.0)	150 (60.0)	1
	Yes	41 (47.1)	46 (52.8)	1.34 (0.82–2.18)	0.247
Panic attacks	No	133 (41.2)	190 (58.8)	1
	Yes	9 (60.0)	6 (40.0)	2.14 (0.75–6.16)	0.157
Agitation/ restlessness or depression	None	97 (38.2)	157 (61.8)	1
	Sometimes/often	43 (51.8)	40 (48.2)	1.74 (1.06–2.87)	0.030
Pain or ailments	None	76 (35.9)	136 (64.1)	1
	Sometimes/often	63 (50.8)	61 (49.2)	1.85 (1.18–2.90)	0.008
Self-reported COVID-19 severity
Physical state during COVID-19	Usual activity	39 (29.1)	95 (70.9)	1
	Limited activity	49 (45.8)	58 (54.2)	2.06 (1.21–3.51)	0.008
	Bedridden	52 (53.6)	45 (46.4)	2.81 (1.63–4.86)	<0.001
Hospitalisation due to COVID-19	No	94 (36.6)	163 (63.4)	1
	Yes	48 (58.5)	34 (41.5)	2.45 (1.47–4.07)	<0.001
Long COVID	No	89 (37.2)	150 (62.8)	1.00
	Yes	35 (51.5)	33 (48.5)	1.79 (1.04–3.08)	0.036

Abbreviations: n: number; SD: standard deviation; OR: Odds Ratio; CI: Confidence Interval; EHIF: Estonian Health Insurance Fund. Statistically significant values are marked in bold.

Figure 3. Mean fear scores on the COVID-19 fear Scale (FCV-19S) among individuals with a prior COVID-19 infection, Estonia 2021. Abbreviations. SD: standard deviation; n: number; 95% CI 95%: confidential interval.

Table 3. Multivariable analysis of association between demographic and self-reported clinical variables and fear among COVID-19 survivors followed in Estonian family practice.

		Multiple logistic regression
Variable	Subgroup	aOR (95% CI)	p Value
Sociodemographic characteristics
Sex	Male	1
	Female	2.12 (1.14–3.95)	0.018
Age	≤50 years	1
	51–60 years	1.13 (0.50–2.54)	0.772
	≥61 years	3.23 (1.28–8.16)	0.013
Education*	<10 years	1
	10–12 years	0.90 (0.26–3.06)	0.861
	>12 years	0.48 (0.14–1.73)	0.264
Nationality^†	Estonian	1
	Other	0.58 (0.30–1.12)	0.106
Household members^‡	1	1
	2	3.70 (1.40–9.77)	0.008
	≥3	2.17 (0.73–6.49)	0.164
Place of residence	City	1
	Rural	1.14 (0.57–2.28)	0.704
Children <18 years in household	No	1
	Yes	1.12 (0.47–2.69)	0.794
Occupation^§	Working	1
	Other	0.94 (0.46–1.93)	0.870
Comorbidities (EHIF)	None	1
	Any	0.56 (0.20–1.60)	0.282
Self-rated health status	Very good	1
	Good	0.84 (0.41–1.70)	0.626
	Average	1.48 (0.60–3.68)	0.394
	Bad/very bad	0.30 (0.05–1.99)	0.213
Self-reported physical activity	≥2 times/ week	1
	Once or less/ week	1.16 (0.58–2.31)	0.675
	Inactive	3.53 (1.26–9.95)	0.017
	Unable due to injury or illness	1.00 (0.19–5.16)	1.000
Self-reported symptoms within 6 months before COVID-19
Fatigue	No	1
	Yes	1.83 (0.85–3.94)	0.121
Sadness	No	1
	Yes	0.93 (0.33–2.61)	0.896
Sleeping problems	No	1
	Yes	0.70 (0.37–1.33)	0.279
Anxiety	No	1
	Yes	0.96 (0.42–2.20)	0.931
Panic attacks	No	1
	Yes	1.21 (0.30–4.93)	0.793
Agitation/restlessness or depression	None	1
	Sometimes/ often	2.48 (0.99–6.23)	0.053
Pain or ailments	None	1
	Sometimes/ often	1.10 (0.57–2.14)	0.772
Self-reported COVID-19 severity
Physical state during COVID-19	Usual activity	1
	Limited activity	2.14 (1.08–4.24)	0.029
	Bedridden	2.66 (1.21–5.87)	0.015
Hospitalisation due to COVID-19	No	1
	Yes	1.11 (0.48–2.55)	0.807
Long COVID	No	1
	Yes	1.82 (0.91–3.63)	0.091

Abbreviations: n: number; aOR: adjusted Odds Ratio; CI: Confidence Interval; EHIF: Estonian Health Insurance Fund.

Statistically significant values are marked in bold.

Explanation to footnotes: * Education was trichotomised into: < 10 years (primary school), 10–12 years (secondary and vocational school) and > 12 years (higher or university education). ^†Nationality was defined as Estonian or Other, the majority of other classified themselves as Russian (n = 94). ^‡Household members were categorised according to the numbers of members, where 1 meant living alone. ^§Occupation was classified as working (full time or part time) or other (unemployed, retired, maternity/ paternity leave, sick leave due to chronic illness, studying, on leave, military service).

Table A1. Characteristics of study participants (n = 341) and COVID-19 fear scale.

Variable	Subgroup	n (%)	Mean (SD)	p Value
Sociodemographic characteristics
Sex	Male	137 (40)	15.92 (8.52)	p = 0.003
	Female	204 (60)	19.03 (10.03)
Age	≤50 years	175 (51)	15.13 (7.63)	p < 0.001
	51–60 years	80 (24)	18.54 (10.17)
	>61 years	86 (25)	22.46 (10.64)
Education*	<10 years	23 (6.8)	21.83 (11.91)	p = 0.015
	10–12 years	169 (49.9)	18.47 (10.16)
	>12 years	147 (43.5)	16.34 (8.2)
Nationality^†	Estonian	225 (66.2)	17.27 (8.96)	p = 0.184
	Other	115 (33.8)	18.73 (10.65)
Household members^‡	1	49 (14.4)	16.84 (9.95)	p = 0.030
	2	128 (37.7)	19.54 (10.38)
	≥ 3	163 (47.9)	16.66 (8.61)
Place of residence	City	271 (79.9)	17.84 (9.66)	p = 0.853
	Rural	68 (20.1)	17.60 (9.33)
Children < 18 years in household	No	222 (66.3)	18.54 (10.02)	p = 0.020
	Yes	113 (33.7)	15.99 (8.11)
Occupation^§	Working	266 (78.9)	16.65 (8.69)	p < 0.001
	Other	71 (21.1)	21.99 (11.36)
Pre-COVID-19 health status
Comorbidities (EHIF)	None	306 (90.3)	17.35 (9.21)	p = 0.013
	Any	33 (9.7)	21.73 (12.01)
Self-rated health status	Very good	95 (28.1)	14.88 (7.47)	p < 0.001
	Good	162 (47.9)	16.94 (8.61)
	Average	70 (20.7)	23.26 (11.81)
	Bad/Very bad	11 (3.3)	20.36 (10.73)
Self-reported physical activity	≥2 times/ week	226 (66.5)	16.88 (9.44)	p = 0.001
	Once or less/week	68 (20)	17.54 (8.06)
	Inactive	33 (9.7)	21.09 (8.73)
	Unable due to injury or illness	13 (3.8)	26.08 (15.17)
Self-reported symptoms within 6 months before COVID-19
Fatigue	No	262 (77.5)	16.61 (8.45)	p < 0.001
	Yes	76 (22.5)	21.87 (11.82)
Sadness	No	296 (87.6)	17.41 (9.14)	p = 0.074
	Yes	42 (12.4)	20.24 (12.07)
Sleeping problems	No	198 (58.2)	16.67 (8.05)	p = 0.010
	Yes	142 (41.8)	19.39 (11.19)
Anxiety	No	250 (74.2)	17.18 (8.65)	p = 0.052
	Yes	87 (25.8)	19.49 (11.76)
Panic attacks	No	323 (95.6)	17.50 (9.17)	p = 0.003
	Yes	15 (4.4)	24.87 (14.74)
Agitation/ restlessness or depression	None	254 (75.4)	16.88 (8.76)	p < 0.004
	Sometimes/often	83 (24.6)	20.39 (11.42)
Pain or ailments	None	212 (63.1)	16.07 (8.30)	p < 0.001
	Sometimes/often	124 (36.9)	20.26 (10.70)
Self-reported COVID-19 severity
Physical state during COVID-19	Usual activity	134 (39.6)	15.01 (7.97)	p < 0.001
	Limited activity	107 (31.7)	18.11 (9.44)
	Bedridden	97 (28.7)	20.93 (10.63)
Hospitalisation due to COVID-19	No	257 (75.8)	16.41 (8.69)	p < 0.001
	Yes	82 (24.2)	22.07 (10.96)
Long COVID	No	239 (77.9)	16.83 (9.06)	p = 0.059
	Yes	68 (22.2)	19.21 (9.29)

Abbreviations. n: number; SD: standard deviation; EHIF: Estonian Health Insurance Fund.

Statistically significant values are marked in bold.

Explanation to footnotes: *Education was trichotomised into: < 10 years (primary school), 10–12 years (secondary and vocational school) and > 12 years (higher or university education). ^†Nationality was defined as Estonian or Other, the majority of other classified themselves as Russian (n = 94). ^‡Household members were categorised according to the numbers of members, where 1 meant living alone. ^§Occupation was classified as working (full time or part time) or other (unemployed, retired, maternity/paternity leave, sick leave due to chronic illness, studying, on leave, military service).

Open Knowledge Estonia. Koroonakaart [Webpage]. [updated 2023 Jan 31; cited 2023 Feb 3]. Available from: https://koroonakaart.ee/en.

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