Does cognitive flexibility training enhance subjective mental functioning in healthy older adults?

Figures & data

Figure 1. Flow chart of the study design. FS = frequent switching; IS = infrequent switching.

Table 1. Demographics and baseline measures

	FS (n = 56)		IS (n = 33)		MT (n = 50)
Measure	M	s.d.	M	s.d.	M	s.d.	Sign. p
Gender (% female)	64.3		63.6		54		.51
Age	67.8	5	67.9	5.4	67.6	5.1	.97
Level of education	5.9	0.9	5.8	0.7	5.9	0.9	.76
TICS Score	35.6	2.5	35.7	2.3	35.2	1.8	.51
Prior computer use	5.6	0.8	5.4	1.6	5.8	0.8	.11
SF-36 Mental	0.2	0.8	0.4	0.7	0.2	0.9	.45
SF-36 Physical	0.1	0.9	−0.2	1.0	0.2	0.8	.17
Cognitive Failure Questionnaire	31.3	11.7	32.4	11.8	28.9	11.6	.37
Dysexecutive Functioning Questionnaire	14.9	9.5	16.2	9.0	14.2	9.1	.60
Instrumental Activities of Daily Living	0.8	1.3	1.0	1.5	0.5	0.9	.19
HADS-Depression	2.0	2.1	2.6	2.6	2.1	2.1	.53
HADS-Anxiety	3.2	3.0	2.8	2.5	3.0	2.5	.77
CIS-Fatigue subscale	20	11.5	21.1	11.5	18.1	11.8	.48
Proxy ^a
Cognitive Failure Questionnaire	24.5	12.8	23.5	11.6	24.7	13.1	.93
Dysexecutive Functioning Questionnaire	13.3	10.2	10.6	7.0	14.2	12.7	.41
Instrumental Activities of Daily Living	0.8	1.8	0.8	1.0	0.6	1.2	.83

Note. Lower scores represent better performance except on SF-36 and TICS; p values of Gender based on χ², all others based on ANOVA; Sign. = Significance; FS = frequent-switching experimental group; IS = infrequent-switching experimental group; MT = mock training group; Level of education based on 7-point scale (from 1 = unfinished primary school to 7 = university); TICS = Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status; SF-36 = Short Form Health Survey-36; HADS = Hospital Anxiety Depression Scale; CIS = Checklist Individual Strength; Prior computer use based on 7-point scale (from 1 = less than once a month to 7 = more than 4 h a day); ^a = n_FS = 44, n_IS = 24, n_MT = 42.

Table 2. Transfer Results

	Group												Comparison
	FS (n = 56)				IS (n = 33)				MT (n = 50)
	Pretraining		Posttraining		Pretraining		Posttraining		Pretraining		Posttraining		Time				Group				Time * Group
Measure	M	s.d.	M	s.d.	M	s.d.	M	s.d.	M	s.d.	M	s.d.	df	F	p	ηp^2	df	F	p	ηp^2	df	F	p	ηp^2
Cognitive Failure Questionnaire	31.3	11.7	28.4	12.4	32.4	11.8	31.5	13.6	28.9	11.6	28.1	11.9	1;132	5.093	.03	.04	2;132	1.016	.37	.02	2;132	0.513	.60	.01
Dysexecutive Functioning Questionnaire	14.9	9.5	14.9	10.1	16.2	9.0	14.8	8.9	14.2	9.1	14.3	9.7	1;130	0.616	.43	.00	2;130	0.293	.75	.00	2;130	1.825	.17	.03
SF-36 Physical	0.1	0.9	0.2	0.8	−0.2	1.0	−0.2	1.1	0.2	0.8	0.2	0.7	1;133	0.134	.72	.00	2;133	2.134	.12	.03	2;133	0.301	.74	.00
SF-36 Mental	0.2	0.8	0.3	0.9	0.4	0.7	0.5	0.6	0.2	0.9	0.1	0.9	1;133	0.116	.73	.00	2;133	1.19	.31	.02	2;133	0.508	.60	.01
HADS-Depression subscale	2.0	2.1	1.7	1.8	2.5	2.6	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.2	1;131	1.483	.23	.01	2;131	0.568	.57	.01	2;131	0.077	.93	.00
HADS-Anxiety subscale	3.2	2.9	2.7	2.4	2.8	2.5	2.5	2.5	3.0	2.5	3.2	3.1	1;133	0.795	.37	.01	2;133	0.288	.75	.00	2;133	1.432	.24	.02
Memory scale (T2) ^a	n.a		9.8	3.2	n.a		9.1	3.6	n.a		9.2	3.7	n.a				2	1.177	.56		n.a
Motivation scale (T2) ^b	n.a.		15.3	3.0	n.a.		15.4	2.2	n.a.		15.3	3.2	n.a.				2;138	0.027	.97		n.a.
Subjective improvement (T2) ^b	n.a		13.11	3.4	n.a		13.1	3.6	n.a		13.2	3.6	n.a				2;134	0.005	.99		n.a
Proxy ^c
Cognitive Failure Questionnaire	24.5	12.9	23.1	15.7	23.5	11.6	21.6	11.8	24.7	13.1	25.5	15.0	1;88	0.705	.40	.01	2;88	0.365	.69	.01	2;88	0.393	.68	.01
Dysexecutive Functioning Questionnaire	13.3	10.2	12.2	10.9	10.6	7.0	10.2	7.9	14.2	12.7	15.8	13.0	1;85	0.056	.81	.00	2;85	1.079	.34	.03	2;85	0.611	.55	.01

Note. Lower scores represent better performance except on SF-36; p values are based on repeated-measures ANOVA unless otherwise specified; ɳ_p² = partial eta squared (effect size); FS = frequent-switching experimental group; IS = infrequent-switching experimental group; MT = mock training; SF-36 = Short Form Health Survey-36; HADS = Hospital Anxiety Depression Scale; T2 = posttraining measurement; ^a = analysis based on Kruskal-Wallis; ^b = analysis based on ANOVA; ^c = n_FS = 44, n_IS = 24, n_MT = 42.

Figure 2. Dysexecutive Functioning Questionnaire mean scores, as a function of training and time (in weeks). FS = frequent switching; IS = infrequent switching; MT = mock training.

Figure 3. Cognitive Failure Questionnaire mean scores, as a function of training and time (in weeks). FS = frequent switching; IS = infrequent switching; MT = mock training.