Fostering cognitive performance in older adults with a process- and a strategy-based cognitive training

Figures & data

Figure 1. Training plan with the a) strategy-based training using implementation intention strategy tasks and the b) process-based training applying dichotic listening tasks.

Table 1. Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) of Pre- and Posttests and Corresponding Effect Sizes.

	Pretest			Posttest
	M	SD		M	SD		t		dRM
Process-based training group (N = 20)
Simple Reaction Time Task	314	97.52		288	46.20		1.51		−0.31
Choice Reaction Time Task	513	111.57		514	85.19		−.02		0.00
Verbal Memory Learning sum	46.20	10.84		52.25	10.36		−5.40***		1.19
Delayed Verbal Memory	9.00	3.21		9.30	3.76		−.45		0.11
Working Memory	23.85	10.95		28.45	11.43		−4.23***		0.97
Prospective Memory	4.60	1.67		4.35	1.87		1.38		−0.11
Fluid Intelligence	4.10	2.29		5.20	2.44		−2.46**		0.57
Prospective Memory in Daily Life	19.70	3.79		19.50	3.41		1.69		−0.06
Retrospective Memory in Daily Life	18.75	3.26		19.20	3.47		.61		0.21
Strategy-based training group (N = 18)
Simple Reaction Time Task	279	45.78		281	37.16		−.37		0.08
Choice Reaction Time Task	477	41.25		476	29.87		.15		−0.03
Verbal Memory Learning sum	48.89	9.51		50.11	10.54		−.67		0.17
Delayed Verbal Memory	9.22	3.44		10.00	3.88		−1.25		0.32
Working Memory	20.33	11.76		23.22	10.86		−1.89*		0.43
Prospective Memory	4.78	1.93		4.83	1.79		−.08		0.02
Fluid Intelligence	4.56	3.13		6.44	3.26		−3.85***		0.92
Prospective Memory in Daily Life	18.00	2.95		18.94	3.08		−1.75*		0.42
Retrospective Memory in Daily Life	17.94	3.47		18.33	3.76		−.57		0.14
No-contact control group (N = 20)
Simple Reaction Time Task	326	79.48		380	200.67		−1.38		0.68
Choice Reaction Time Task	556	140.32		598	197.93		−1.12		0.32
Verbal Memory Learning sum	45.25	10.88		47.50	8.36		−1.24		0.26
Delayed Verbal Memory	7.60	4.11		8.10	3.51		−.60		0.13
Working Memory	22.55	11.79		22.30	14.02		.14		−0.04
Prospective Memory	4.60	1.54		3.10	2.49		2.40**		−0.73
Fluid Intelligence	4.30	2.58		4.80	3.00		−.87		0.21
Prospective Memory in Daily Life	19.25	3.93		18.90	3.28		.51		−0.11
Retrospective Memory in Daily Life	19.25	3.29		18.70	2.76		.71		−0.15

Note. Measurements are explained in the Methods. All values are rounded to two digits after the decimal point. *p < .1, **p < .05, ***p < .01.

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for Pretest Variables.

Variable^a	n	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
1. Simple Reaction Time Task	58	307.84	79.34	-
2. Choice Reaction Time Task	58	517.23	110.78	.21	-
3. Choice Reaction Task accuracy	58	0.96	0.03	.18	.26	-
4. Verbal Memory Learning Sum	58	46.71	10.39	−.23	−.37**	.11	-
5. Delayed Verbal Memory	58	8.59	3.62	−.24	−.32*	.00	.73**	-
6. Working Memory	58	22.31	11.38	−.09	−.35**	.13	.53**	.30*	-
7. Prospective Memory	58	4.66	1.68	.03	−.10	.26	.09	−.04	.08	-
8. Fluid Intelligence	58	4.31	2.63	−.15	−.15	.26	.46**	.47**	.27*	−.15	-
9. Prospective Memory in Daily Life^b	58	19.02	3.61	.12	.05	−.14	−.21	.05	−.34**	−.20	.07	-
10. Retrospective Memory in Daily Life^b	58	18.67	3.32	.07	.29*	.02	−.12	.08	−.18	−.12	.12	.57**	-

Note. n = sample size; M = mean; SD = standard deviation. All values are rounded to two digits after the decimal point.

^aVariables as described in the method section (see Cognitive Measures for detailed commendation).n

^bVariables represent subjective measures.

* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01.

Figure 2. Training performance during the 4 training weeks in the a) process-based training: reaction time in the dichotic listening task, b) strategy-based training: number of remembered intentions in the implementation intention task.

Figure 3. Effect sizes of pre- to posttest performance change in episodic memory, working memory, and fluid intelligence for the training and control groups.

Note. The marked group effects were statistically significant (p < .05). There were no group effects regarding simple and choice reaction time, prospective memory, and memory in daily life