The predictive utility of the plant phylogeny in identifying sources of cardiovascular drugs

Figures & data

Table 1. Plant species with cardiovascular applications based on experimental or ethnobotanical/traditional evidence.

Plant species	Family	References	Evidence	Mechanism of action
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees	Acanthaceae	Liu and Huang (2016)	Experimental	ACEI
Acorus calamus L.	Acoraceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	CCB
Echinodorus grandiflorus (Cham. & Schltdl.) Micheli	Alismataceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	ND
Achyranthes bidentata Blume	Amaranthaceae	Xiong et al. (2013)	Traditional	DIU
Chenopodium murale L.	Amaranthaceae	Ibarra-Alvarado et al. (2010)	Experimental	MU
Allium sativum L.	Amaryllidaceae	Mashour et al. (1998); Li et al. (2015)	Experimental	ACEI, ND, TL, AA
Crinum glaucum A.Chev	Amaryllidaceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011)	Experimental	MU
Rhus chinensis Mill.	Anacardiaceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	AB, ND
Annona muricata L.	Annonaceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011)	Experimental	MU
Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam.	Apiaceae	Khan et al. (2001); Rauwald et al. (1994); Bhagavathula et al. (2015)	Experimental	CCB, DIU
Angelica dahurica (Hoffm.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Franch. & Sav.	Apiaceae	Sarker and Nahar (2004); Lee, Shin, et al. (2015); Lu et al. (2016)	Experimental	CCB, DIU
Apium graveolens L.	Apiaceae	Tsi et al. (1995); Moghadam et al. (2013)	Experimental	DIU
Coriandrum sativum L.	Apiaceae	Jabeen et al. (2009); Dhanapakiam et al. (2008)	Experimental	CCB, DIU
Daucus carota L.	Apiaceae	Gilani et al. (2000); Nicolle et al. (2003)	Experimental	CCB
Ligusticum wallichii Franch	Apiaceae	Mashour et al. (1998)	Experimental	CCB, AB
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss	Apiaceae	Kreydiyyeh and Usta (2002); Farzaei et al. (2013); El Rabey et al. (2017)	Experimental	DIU
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.	Apocynaceae	Bello et al. (2015)	Experimental	CCB
Apocynum venetum L.	Apocynaceae	Xie et al. (2012)	Experimental	DIU, ND, PDEI
Aspidosperma subincanum Mart. ex A.DC.	Apocynaceae	Bernardes et al. (2013)	Experimental	CCB, PDEI
Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz	Apocynaceae	Klabunde (2012)	Experimental	AB
Panax ginseng C.A.Mey.	Araliaceae	Liu and Huang (2016)	Experimental	CCB
Ruscus aculeatus L.	Asparagaceae	Mashour et al. (1998)	Experimental	AB, CCB
Calendula officinalis L.	Asteraceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	DIU
Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All.	Asteraceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	MU
Cynara cardunculus L.	Asteraceae	Waltenberger et al. (2016)	Experimental	AA
Dendranthema morifolium (Ramat.) Tzvelev	Asteraceae	Jin et al. (2016)	Experimental	CCB
Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr.	Asteraceae	Hoe et al. (2007)	Experimental	ACEI
Matricaria chamomilla L.	Asteraceae	Baharvand-Ahmadi et al. (2016)	Traditional	MU
Santolina chamaecyparissus L.	Asteraceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	DIU
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn	Asteraceae	Liperoti et al. (2017)	Experimental	MU
Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund	Asteraceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	DIU
Berberis vulgaris L.	Berberidaceae	Abushouk et al. (2017)	Experimental	ACEI, CAS, ND, PCB, TL
Borago officinalis L.	Boraginaceae	Baharvand-Ahmadi et al. (2016)	Traditional	MU
Brassica napus L.	Brassicaceae	Akbari et al. (2016); Quinn et al. (2017)	Experimental	ACEI
Erysimum cheiranthoides L.	Brassicaceae	Shan et al. (2001)	Experimental	DIU
Lepidium latifolium L.	Brassicaceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011)	Experimental	DIU
Nasturtium officinale R.Br.	Brassicaceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	MU
Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. sativus (L.) Domin	Brassicaceae	Vargas et al. (1999); Lugasi et al. (2005); Ghayur and Gilani (2006)	Experimental	DIU, ND
Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari	Burseraceae	Rastogi et al. (2016)	Traditional	MU
Dipterygium glaucum Decne	Capparaceae	Ahmeda et al. (2015)	Traditional	MU
Valeriana officinalis L.	Caprifoliaceae	Baharvand-Ahmadi et al. (2016)	Traditional	MU
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn	Combretaceae	Rastogi et al. (2016)	Traditional	MU
Commelina virginica L.	Commelinaceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011)	Experimental	AB
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.	Convolvulaceae	Gilani et al. (1992)	Experimental	CAS
Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken	Crassulaceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	AA
Sedum roseum (L.) Scop.	Crassulaceae	Waltenberger et al. (2016)	Experimental	MU
Momordica charantia L.	Cucurbitaceae	Ojewole et al. (2006)	Experimental	MU
Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.Roem.	Cucurbitaceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	AA, TL
Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw.	Cucurbitaceae	Ibarra-Alvarado et al. (2010)	Traditional	MU
Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A. Nelson	Elaeagnaceae	Liu and Huang (2016)	Experimental	CCB
Equisetum arvense L.	Equisetaceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	DIU
Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull	Ericaceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	DIU
Eucommia ulmoides Oliv.	Eucommiaceae	Hosoo et al. (2015)	Experimental	ND
Astragalus propinquus Schischkin	Fabaceae	Zhang et al. (1997); Liu and Huang (2016)	Experimental	AA, TL
Castanospermum australe A.Cunn. & C. Fraser	Fabaceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011)	Experimental	MU
Desmodium styracifolium (Osbeck) Merr.	Fabaceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011); Chen et al. (2015)	Experimental	AB, TL
Glycine max (L.) Merr.	Fabaceae	Lee et al. (2017)	Experimental	AA
Medicago sativa L.	Fabaceae	Bora and Sharma (2011)	Experimental	AA, TL
Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pall.	Fabaceae	Pirmohamed (2006)	Experimental	TL
Pueraria montana var. lobata (Willd.) Sanjappa & Pradeep	Fabaceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011); Chen et al. (2015)	Experimental	AB, TL
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link	Fabaceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	CCB
Styphnolobium japonicum (L.) Schott	Fabaceae	Chen and Hsieh (2010)	Experimental	TL
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.	Fabaceae	Taj Eldin et al. (2013)	Experimental	TL
Centaurium erythraea Rafn	Gentianaceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	MU
Halenia elliptica D. Don	Gentianaceae	Li et al. (2015)	Experimental	CCB
Ribes divaricatum Douglas	Grossulariaceae	Baharvand-Ahmadi et al. (2016)	Traditional	MU
Hypericum perforatum L.	Hypericaceae	Baharvand-Ahmadi et al. (2016)	Traditional	MU
Crocus sativus L.	Iridaceae	Joukar and Dehesh (2015)	Experimental	CAS
Coleus forskohlii (Willd.) Briq.	Lamiaceae	Christenson et al. (1995); Loftus et al. (2015)	Experimental	AA, TL
Dracocephalum moldavica L.	Lamiaceae	Ebrahim Sajjadi et al. (1998); Miernisha et al. (2016)	Experimental	ND, TL
Lavandula stoechas L.	Lamiaceae	Gilani et al. (2000)	Experimental	CCB
Leonurus cardiaca L.	Lamiaceae	Zou et al. (1989)	Experimental	TL
Mentha suaveolens Ehrh	Lamiaceae	Bello et al. (2001)	Experimental	AB
Ocimum basilicum L.	Lamiaceae	Amrani et al. (2009); Umar et al. (2010)	Experimental	ACEI, ERA, TL
Rosmarinus officinalis L.	Lamiaceae	Ulbricht et al. (2010); Ibarra et al. (2011)	Experimental	ACEI, TL
Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge	Lamiaceae	Ling et al. (2008); Liu and Huang (2016)	Experimental	TL
Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi	Lamiaceae	Króliczewska et al. (2011); Lee, Ku et al. (2015); Liu and Huang (2016)	Experimental	ND, TL
Cinnamomum verum J.Presl	Lauraceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	ND
Linum usitatissimum L.	Linaceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011)	Experimental	AA, TL
Punica granatum L.	Lythraceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011)	Experimental	ACEI
Magnolia grandiflora L.	Magnoliaceae	Ibarra-Alvarado et al. (2010)	Experimental	MU
Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik.	Malvaceae	Lv et al. (2017)	Experimental	AA
Abroma augusta (L.) L.f.	Malvaceae	Khanra et al. (2015)	Experimental	AA
Gossypium barbadense L.	Malvaceae	Hasrat et al. (2004)	Experimental	MU
Hibiscus sabdariffa L.	Malvaceae	Chen et al. (2003); Ojeda et al. (2010)	Experimental	AA, ACEI
Theobroma cacao L.	Malvaceae	Osakabe and Yamagishi (2009); Tabassum and Ahmad (2011); Sarriá et al. (2012)	Experimental	AA, ND
Veratrum album L.	Melanthiaceae	Swiss and Maison (1952); Mashour et al. (1998)	Experimental	CAS
Stephania tetrandra S. Moore	Menispermaceae	Mashour et al. (1998)	Experimental	CCB
Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson ex F.A. Zorn) Fosberg	Moraceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011)	Experimental	AB
Ficus religiosa L.	Moraceae	Baharvand-Ahmadi et al. (2016)	Traditional	MU
Morus alba L.	Moraceae	Kim et al. (2017)	Experimental	TL
Peganum harmala L.	Nitrariaceae	Gilani et al. (1992)	Experimental	MU
Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl	Oleaceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	DIU
Olea europaea L.	Oleaceae	Micucci et al. (2015)	Experimental	AA, CCB
Fuchsia magellanica Lam.	Onagraceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011)	Traditional	DIU
Cistanche tubulosa (Schenk) Wight	Orobanchaceae	Li et al. (2015)	Experimental	ND
Bocconia frutescens L.	Papaveraceae	Ibarra-Alvarado et al. (2010)	Experimental	MU
Chelidonium majus L.	Papaveraceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	DIU
Sesamum indicum L.	Pedaliaceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	AA, ND
Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn.	Phyllanthaceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	AA, DIU
Pinus pinaster Aiton	Pinaceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011)	Experimental	ACEI
Digitalis purpurea L.	Plantaginaceae	Mashour et al. (1998)	Experimental	CG
Avena sativa L.	Poaceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	AA, ND
Hordeum vulgare L.	Poaceae	d’Avigdor et al. (2014)	Traditional	MU
Reynoutria multiflora (Thunb.) Moldenke	Polygonaceae	Liu and Huang (2016)	Experimental	AA
Rheum palmatum L.	Polygonaceae	Hamzeh et al. (2014)	Experimental	AA
Rumex abyssinicus Jacq.	Polygonaceae	d’Avigdor et al. (2014)	Traditional	MU
Embelia ribes Burm.f.	Primulaceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	AA
Coptis chinensis Franch.	Ranunculaceae	Al Disi et al. (2015)	Experimental	CCB, ND, TL
Nigella sativa L.	Ranunculaceae	Jaarin et al. (2015)	Experimental	AA, ACEI, ND
Rhamnus alaternus L.	Rhamnaceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	MU
Ziziphus jujuba Mill.	Rhamnaceae	Baharvand-Ahmadi et al. (2016)	Traditional	AA
Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge	Rosaceae	Tabassum and Ahmad (2011); Wang et al. (2013)	Experimental	AA, ND
Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim.	Rosaceae	Jerie (2006); Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Experimental	AA, DIU, TL
Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill.	Rosaceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	MU
Potentilla reptans L.	Rosaceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	MU
Prunus spinosa L.	Rosaceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014); Marchelak et al. (2017)	Experimental	AA, DIU
Tetradium ruticarpum (A.Juss.) T.G.Hartley	Rutaceae	Mashour et al. (1998)	Experimental	ND
Salix alba L.	Salicaceae	Mahdi (2010)	Experimental	AA, TL
Viscum album L.	Santalaceae	Baharvand-Ahmadi et al. (2016)	Traditional	MU
Aesculus hippocastanum L.	Sapindaceae	Mashour et al. (1998); Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Experimental	VENO
Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill.	Schisandraceae	Kim et al. (2017)	Experimental	TL
Verbascum sinuatum L.	Scrophulariaceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	MU
Atropa belladona L.	Solanaceae	Davies and Hollman (2002)	Experimental	MRA
Lycium barbarum L.	Solanaceae	Zhang et al. (2015)	Experimental	ND
Physalis alkekengi L.	Solanaceae	Baharvand-Ahmadi et al. (2016)	Traditional	MU
Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze	Theaceae	Nantz et al. (2009)	Experimental	AA
Tropaeolum majus L.	Tropaeolaceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	ACEI, DIU, ND
Cecropia pachystachya Trécul	Uritaceae	Liu and Huang (2016)	Experimental	CG
Musanga cecropioides R.Br. ex Tedlie	Urticaceae	Adeneye et al. (2006)	Experimental	ACEI
Parietaria judaica L.	Urticaceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	MU
Urtica dioica L.	Urticaceae	Calvo and Cavero (2014)	Traditional	MU
Viola odorata L.	Violaceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	AA, CCB, ND
Vitis vinifera L.	Vitaceae	Dohadwala and Vita (2009)	Experimental	AA, TL
Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) B.L.Burtt & R.M.Sm.	Zingiberaceae	Lin et al. (2008); da Cunha et al. (2013)	Experimental	CCB
Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton	Zingiberaceae	Anwar et al. (2016); Nagashree et al. (2017)	Experimental	CCB
Kaempferia parviflora Wall. ex Baker	Zingiberaceae	Achuthan and Padikkala (1997); Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	CCB, ND
Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Zingiberaceae	Ghayur and Gilani (2005); Bhandari et al. (2005)	Experimental	CCB
Tribulus terrestris L.	Zygophyllaceae	Anwar et al. (2016)	Experimental	ACEI, ND

Scientific names follow the latest taxonomic changes in PlantList (http://www.theplantlist.org/), and may differ from the name used in the reference. For each species, the specific traditional application or pharmacological mechanism as described in the reference is indicated. Pharmacological mechanisms were classified according to Klabunde (2012). These mechanisms included angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI), alpha/beta-adrenoceptor blockers (AB), calcium-channel blockers (CCB), cardiac glycosides or Na+/K + ATPase inhibitors (CG), diuretics (DIU), nitrodilators (ND), phosphodiesterase-inhibitors (PDEI), potassium channel blockers (PCB), thrombolytics (TL), endothelium-receptor antagonist (ERA), muscarinic receptor antagonist (MRA), venotonic (VENO) and anti-atherosclerosis (AA). MU was indicated when the mechanism is unknown.

Figure 1. Phylogeny of 139 plant species with cardiovascular applications and their pharmacological mechanisms of actions (black and grey boxes). Plant families with 4 or more species, possessing common pharmacological mechanisms of action (black boxes) are highlighted and labeled. Mechanisms included angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI), alpha/beta-adrenoceptor blockers (AB), calcium-channel blockers (CCB), cardiac glycosides or Na+/K+ ATPase inhibitors (CG), diuretics (DIU), nitrodilators (ND), phosphodiesterase-inhibitors (PDEI), potassium channel blockers (PCB), anticoagulant/thrombolytics (TL), endothelium-receptor antagonist (ERA), muscarinic receptor antagonist (MRA), venotonic (VENO), and anti-atherosclerosis (AA). MU was indicated when the mechanism is unknown. Red solid boxes immediately next to species name indicate that the plant has only ethnobotanical/traditional use.

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