Traditional medicines and their common uses in central region of Syria: Hama and Homs – an ethnomedicinal survey

Figures & data

Table 1. Age and gender distribution.

Age group	Gender	No. of informants
Over the age 65	Male	20
	Female	12
50–65	Male	60
	Female	25
35–50	Male	19
	Female	15
Total	151

Table 2. Ethnobotanical uses of plant species according to ethnomedicinal survey of central region in Syria (Homs and Hama).

Name of species	Common name (Arabic language)	Family	Part used	UV	Ethnobotanical uses
Achillea santolina L. W* 1^ch**	قيصوم (Kaisoom)	Asteraceae	L	0.529	An infusion of the leaves is used internally for fever, common cold, absence of menstruation, dysentery, diarrhoea, loss of appetite, gastrointestinal (GI) tract discomfort, and to induce sweating.
Allium cepa L. C* 2^ch**	البصل (Al-basal)	Liliaceae	Bb	0.827	A juice of the fresh bulb is used internally for cough, asthma attacks, typhoid, and the roasted bulb is eaten for diabetes, A juice of the fresh bulb is used externally for whooping cough, back pain, neck pain and warts.
Allium sativum L. C* 3^ch**	ثوم (Thoum)	Liliaceae	Bb	0.894	Fresh bulb is used internally for hypertension treatment, vermifuge, diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, and urinary tract infection, relieve atherosclerosis, diabetes, anti-inflammatory, the bulb oil is used externally for rheumatism, dandruff, scabies, fungi and treating insect bites.
Ammi visnaga L. Lam. W* 4^ch**	خلة سورية (Khelleh)	Apiaceae	Ps, Sd	0.728	Pedicles of this plant used to clean the teeth, and seeds decoction used internally as a diuretic, antispasmodic and for bladder stones. Also it is used as a smooth muscle relaxant for asthma, and whooping cough.
Artemisia herba-alba Asso. W* 5^ch**	الشيح الأبيض (Shieh abiad)	Asteraceae	L	0.496	An infusion of leaves is used internally for cancer, nerve system disorders, heart diseases, diabetes, to increase appetite, and anthelmintic.
Asparagus officinalis L. W* 6^ch**	هليون، عربيش (Heliun)	Asparagaceae	R, Sh	0.331	Cooked roots and shoots are used internally for urinary tract diseases, lowering blood pressure, analgesic and anti-inflammatory.
Avena sativa L. C* 7^ch**	شوفان (Shofan)	Poaceae	Sd	0.436	The bran husk of seed is a mealy nutritive herb used internally for weight reduction, and constipation, the whole grinded seeds are used internally for diabetes, hypercholesterolaemia, diuretic and antispasmodic.
Borago officinalis L. W* 8^ch**	لسان الثور، بلغصون (Lisan athaur)	Boraginaceae	L	0.662	An infusion of leaves is used internally for treatments for infections, respiratory complaints, depression, arthritis, asthma and the fresh leaves are used as mealy nutritive herb and diuretic.
Arum maculatum L. W* 9^ch**	لوف (Louf)	Araceae	L	0.529	Cooked leaves are used internally for digestion disorders treatment, asthma treatment, bacterial infection, anthelmintic and liver tonic.
Capparis spinosa L. W* 10^ch**	قبار (Cabar)	Capparaceae	Sh, R	0.43	Young shoots pickled either in vinegar or preserved in granular salt are used internally for diseases of the nervous system, back pain, liver diseases, the fresh roots are used externally for back pain and rheumatism.
Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl W* 11^ch**	عيرون (Airon)	Apocynaceae	R	0.19	A decoction of root is used externally for lichen disease.
Carthamus tinctorius L. W* 12^ch**	عصفر (Isfer)	Asteraceae	Sd	0.099	A seed oil is used internally to prevent heart disease, dysmenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, postpartum abdominal pain, pain of joints.
Celosia cristata L. W* 13^ch**	عرف الديك، القطيفة (Eurif aldiyk)	Amaranthaceae	L, Sd	0.125	The leaves decoction is used internally as an antidiarrheal, seed decoction is used internally as a laxative, in cases of cough, and dysarthria urination, and for pain.
Centaurea calcitrapa L. W* 14^ch**	كليبة، مرار (Kllybeh)	Asteraceae	L	0.629	The fresh leaves are used internally as appetite enhancer, and for diarrhoea, the cooked leaves are edible as special traditional Syrian recipe known as Syrian salad (saleeg).
Chrozophora tinctoria L. A.Juss. W* 15^ch**	غبيرة، صفيرة (Ghubyreh)	Euphorbiaceae	L	0.132	The fresh leaves are used internally as diuretic, and for kidney stones.
Cichorium intybus L. W* 16^ch**	هندباء (Hinduba)	Asteraceae	L, R	0.92	An infusion of leaves is used internally for improving immunity, protecting the heart, and for cancer, and eye inflammation, the fresh leaves are used as diuretic, laxative and slimming, the roasted of roots for liver diseases, the leaves are edible as special salad.
Citrus limon L. Osbeck C* 17^ch**	ليمون حامض (Limun hamd)	Rutaceae	F, Pe	0.596	Fresh juice of fruits is used internally for flu, common cold, the dried peels of fruits are used for diseases of stomach, intestine and urinary tract.
Convolvulus althaeoides L. W* 18^ch**	مداد (Maddad)	Convolvulaceae	L	0.099	An infusion of leaves is used internally as diuretic, and for kidney stone.
Coriandrum sativum L. C* 19^ch**	كزبرة (Kuzbara)	Apiaceae	Sd, L	0.86	A decoction of seeds and leaves is used internally for intestinal inflammation, weight loss and intestinal gas, treating narrowed arteries, diabetes.
Crataegus azarolus L. W* 20^ch**	زعرور (Zaaroor)	Rosaceae	F	0.76	A decoction of fruits is used internally for cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, sexual weakness, cancer and diabetes.
Cyperus rotundus L. W* 21^ch**	السعد (Sued)	Cyperaceae	T, Sd	0.112	A decoction of tuber part is used internally for digestion, bedwetting, diarrhoea, diabetes, inflammation and gastrointestinal disorder, the oil of seeds is used externally for permanent hair remove and for burns.
Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter W* 32^ch**	الطيون (At-tayun)	Asteraceae	L, Fl	0.841	A decoction of leaves is used externally for burns, wounds, cutaneous leishmaniasis and the oil of the flowers is prepared in olive oil to use topically, and it is used internally for anaemia, respiratory problems, ulcers of the gums, diarrhoea.
Ecballium elaterium L. A.Rich. W* 22^ch**	عجور الجقل (Ajour eljacal)	Cucurbitaceae	F	0.37	Fresh juice of fruits is used for liver diseases, jaundice and sinusitis by nasal administration (just one drop of juice is inhaled in each nostril), and it is used externally for eczema.
Eremostachys laciniata L. Bunge W* 23^ch**	حزنبل (Hoznobul)	Lamiaceae	R, Fl	0.21	A decoction of root and flower is used internally for allergy, headache and liver diseases, sedative.
Eruca sativa Mill. C* 24^ch**	جرجير (Jarjeer)	Brassicaceae	L	0.807	Fresh leaves are used internally for sexual weakness and blood purification, diabetes, anti-toxicant, oil from seeds is used for hair tonic, burns, skin lesions, the leaves are edible as special salad.
Eryngium creticum Lam. W* 25^ch**	قرصعنة (Korsanneh)	Apiaceae	R, Fl, Ap	0.688	A decoction of root and flower is used internally for liver diseases, poisonous, insect bites, anaemia and infertility problems, the young aerial parts are edible as special salad.
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. C* 26^ch**	كينا الشام (Kenna el-Sham)	Myrtaceae	L	0.92	An infusion of leaves is used externally as inhalation for respiratory diseases.
Ficus carica L. C* 27^ch**	التين (At-tīn)	Moraceae	F, Lx	0.668	The dried fruits externally for wounds, the latex is used externally for warts, the decoction is used internally for catarrh and bronchitis, and for diabetes, hypertriglyceridaemia, laxative.
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. W* 28^ch**	شمرة (Shamra)	Apiaceae	Sd	0.788	An infusion of seeds is used internally as carminative, digestive, lactogogue and diuretic and in treating of respiratory and gastrointestinal disorders.
Fraxinus syriaca Boiss. W* 29^ch**	دردار (Dardar)	Oleaceae	F	0.907	An infusion of leaves is used internally for facilitate digestion, treat tracheitis, strengthening the immune system, the cooked leaves known as traditional Syrian food in Salamiyah (is a city and district in western Syria, in the Hama Governorate).
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. C* 30^ch**	عرقسوس (Erqsus)	Fabaceae	R	0.854	An infusion of roots is used internally for fever, ulcer, kidney diseases and asthma, rheumatism, its syrup famous as traditional Syrian drink during the holy month of Ramadan (fasting month) as anti-thirst.
Hypericum triquetrifolium Turra. W* 31^ch**	عرن (Aran)	Hypericaceae	Fl	0.682	An infusion of flowers is used internally as anxiolytic, and antidepressant.
Juglans regia L. C* 33^ch**	جوز (Jauz)	Juglandaceae	Sd, L, F	0.768	A decoction of seeds and leaves is used internally for sexual impotency, blood purification, lymph gland enlargement and bleeding, and topically is used for scrofula disease, sores, blisters, the fresh fruits are used for poor memory, strengthen immunity.
Juniperus communis L. et Viv. W* 34^ch**	عرعر (Arâr)	Cupressaceae	F, Co	0.715	A decoction of cones and fruits is used internally for rheumatism, paralysis, tuberculosis, anaemia, diuretic and for urinary tract infection.
Lepidium sativum L. C* 35^ch**	رشاد (Rashad)	Brassicaceae	L, Sd	0.867	A decoction of leaves is used internally for kidney disorders, diuretic, kidney stone, to increase breast milk in female, and tonic, it used to regulate the menstrual cycle in women, and to reduce blood sugar for diabetics, and triglyceride levels and blood cholesterol level, the oil of seed is used externally as hair tonic.
Linum usitatissimum L. C* 36^ch**	كتان (Kettan)	Linaceae	S	0.662	Seeds oil is used internally as laxative and for obesity. The seeds are used in treatment of urinary tract infections and hypertriglyceridaemia.
Malus trilobata (Labill. ex Poir.) C.K.Schneid. C* 37^ch**	تفاح (Tofah)	Rosaceae	F	0.576	Apple cider vinegar is used internally for slimming and reducing blood lipids, externally, it is used to treat skin diseases, remove corns, and as an antiseptic, and to treat lichen.
Malva sylvestris L. W* 38^ch**	خبيزة (Khubbeizeh)	Malvaceae	L, Fl	0.682	A decoction of leaves and flowers is used internally for cough as expectorant, sedative for sleep problems, digestion problems and mouth sores, and externally for skin diseases.
Matricaria aurea (Loefl.) Sch.Bip W* 39^ch**	بابونج ذهبي (Babunaj dahabi)	Asteraceae	Ca	0.649	The capitulum decoction or infusion is used internally for fever, coughing and heart diseases, chest pain, headache and kidney stone, and its used externally to treat skin infections, burns, wounds, eczema.
Matricaria chamomilla L. (Loefl) Sch.Bip. C* 40^ch**	بابونج عادي (Babunaj aadi)	Asteraceae	F	0.788	The flower decoction or infusion is used internally for chest diseases, treatment of stomach ache, diabetes.
Melissa officinalis L. W* 41^ch**	مليسة (Mellisa)	Lamiaceae	L	0.701	A decoction of leaves is used internally as carminative, antispasmodic, depression, anxiety, cough, respiratory infection.
Mentha pulegium L. C* 42^ch**	نعناع (Nana)	Lamiaceae	L	0.741	A decoction of leaves is used internally as antiseptic, menstrual complaints, diaphoretic, sedative, itching, common cold, respiratory tract disorder.
Micromeria myrtifolia Boiss. & Hohen. W* 43^ch**	زوفا (Zufa)	Lamiaceae	L	0.814	A decoction of leaves is used externally for wounds, sores, skin diseases and its used internally for colic and cold, heart diseases, digestive system and asthma.
Myrtus communis L. W* 44^ch**	آس، حنبلاس (Aass)	Myrtaceae	L	0.701	A decoction of leaves is used internally for diarrhoea, respiratory tract diseases and externally for haemorrhoids.
Nigella sativa L. C* 45^ch**	حبة البركة (Habbet barakeh)	Ranunculaceae	Sd	0.768	Seeds are ground finely and used internally as expectorant, carminative, impotency in male, antispasmodic, hypoglycaemic, oil used externally for skin diseases, hair growth and orally to strengthen the body's immunity.
Olea europaea L. C* 46^ch**	زيتون (Zaitoon)	Oleaceae	L, F	0.9	A decoction of leaves is used internally for diabetes, high blood pressure and slimming. A fruit's oil is used for coughing, vasodilator, laxative, hyperacidity and stones in kidney, and its used externally for skin diseases.
Opuntia ficus-indica L. Mill. W* 47^ch**	تين الصبار (Tīn alsabr)	Cactaceae	F, L	0.682	Fresh fruits and leaves extract or juice are used internally as laxative, anti-inflammatory, carminative, digestive and are used externally for sun burns, skin care, burn, wound.
Origanum syriacum L. C* 48^ch**	زوبع، مردقوش (Zoba'a)	Lamiaceae	Ap	0.721	A decoction of aerial parts is used internally for catarrh, carminative, diuretic, headache, rheumatism, antiseptic, neck stiffness, stomach cramps, stomach discomfort, indigestion, cholesterol reduction.
Papaver rhoeas L. W* 49^ch**	شقائق النعمان (Shakaek alnuman)	Papaveraceae	Fl	0.509	A decoction of flowers is used internally for whooping cough, headache and has hypnotic effect, analgesic, as relieves stress.
Paronychia argentea Lam. W* 50^ch**	زهرة الماسة (Zahret el-maseh)	Caryophyllaceae	Fl	0.668	An infusion of flowers is used internally as diuretic, and for kidney stone.
Petroselinum sativum Hoffm. C* 51^ch**	بقدونس (Bakdoones)	Apiaceae	Fl	0.655	An infusion of flowers is used internally for anaemia, and calms nerves, and anti-toxic, and for inflammation, and as liver tonic, also it is used externally for treating bruises, insect bites and rough skin.
Pistacia atlantica Desf. W* 52^ch**	بطم (Batm)	Anacardiaceae	F, G	0.225	The fruits of the mastic are called green ivory in the Syrian countryside, fresh green fruits are used internally for treating the liver diseases, tumours, joint diseases, and colds and headaches, joint pain, gum tree is used externally in treating scabies, wounds and fungal diseases, the traditional Jarmashi bread with the fruits of the mastic, where the green fruits give it a delicious taste and gives great energy and vitality, Mastic tree keeps poisonous insects away.
Pistacia vera L. C* 53^ch**	فستق حلبي (Fustuk Halabi)	Anacardiaceae	F, Pe, G	0.754	The fruits are nutritious, and the peels of fruits and gum of the tree are used externally for cases of eczema, dermatitis and psoriasis.
Plumbago europaea L. W* 54^ch**	خامشة (Khamisheh)	Plumbaginaceae	Fl	0.066	An infusion of flowers is used externally for treating alopecia and psoriasis.
Portulaca oleracea L. C* 55^ch**	بقلة (Albaqlata)	Portulacaceae	Ap	0.715	An infusion of flowering herbs is used internally for kidney disorders and improve digestion, prevention of heart disease and cancer, and for weight reduction, stomach diseases and bone strengthening.
Prunus armeniaca L. C* 56^ch**	مشمش (Mushamash)	Rosaceae	F	0.582	Dried fruits are used internally to strengthen the body's immunity.
Punica granatum L. C* 57^ch**	رمان (Rumman)	Punicaceae	F	0.622	The fruit juice is used internally for mouth sores, cough, malabsorption syndrome, hypercholesterolaemia, the bark is used as anthelmintic, and for diarrhoea, amoebic dysentery, antibacterial, ulcer.
Quercus calliprinos Webb. W* 58^ch**	بلوط (Ballot)	Fagaceae	F, Bk	0.298	A decoction of fruits and bark is used internally as anti-bleeding and pain reliever, and helps in digestion, blood purification, coughing, and it is used externally for eczema treatment.
Quercus ithaburensis Decne. W* 59^ch**	سنديان (Cendyan)	Fagaceae	S, Bk	0.185	A decoction of stem and bark and fruit is used internally for cancer, fever, bed wetting, high blood pressure and ulcer.
Raphanus raphanistrum L. W* 60^ch**	فجل بري (Fejel barri)	Brassicaceae	R	0.682	A decoction of roots is used internally as diuretic, anti-cancer, and for rheumatism, and the dried roots is used for liver diseases.
Rhus tripartita (Ucria) Grande W* 61^ch**	عرينة (Aryneh)	Anacardiaceae	W	0.086	A decoction of whole plant is used internally as diuretic, and for kidney stone.
Rosa×damascena Herrm C* 62^ch**	وردة شامية (Wardeh shamieh)	Rosaceae	Fl	0.582	Rose water is used externally for skin diseases, and skin care, the petals are used internally for cough, and laxative, and to treat chest infection. UNESCO has inscribed the element of the Damascus rose and associated heritage practices and craftsmanship on the UNESCO intangible cultural heritage of humanity list for its importance in making essential oils which can be used in traditional medicine (UNESCO 2019).
Rosmarinus officinalis L. C* 63^ch**	اكليل الجبل (Eklil aljabal)	Lamiaceae	L	0.834	An infusion of leaves is used internally for respiratory diseases, heart disorders, to enhance memory, enhance the body's immunity, treating headache and as antidepressant.
Rubus fruticosus G.N.Jones W* 64^ch**	توت العليق (Toot alealiq)	Rosaceae	F, R	0.549	An infusion of fruits and root is used internally for kidney stone, glycaemic, atherosclerosis, hypotensive and anticoagulant.
Rumex obtusifolius L. W* 65^ch**	حميضة (Homedah)	Polygonaceae	L	0.523	An infusion of leaves is used internally for mouth ulcers, for anaemia, adjust sugar, improve blood circulation, the cooked leaves are edible as special traditional Syrian recipe known as Syrian salad (saleeg).
Salvia fruticosa Mill. C* 66^ch**	ميرمية (Meiramiea)	Lamiaceae	L	0.609	An infusion of leaves is used internally for stomach and colon disorders, regulator and sterilizer for uterine diseases in women, intestinal antiseptic, diuretic, diabetes.
Sarcopoterium spinosum L. Spach W* 67^ch**	بلان (Ballan)	Rosaceae	R	0.45	A decoction of roots is used topically for treating joints and spinal disc, a decoction of seeds is used internally for haemorrhoids, diabetes.
Sorghum halepense L. Pers. W* 68^ch**	حليان (Halyan)	Poaceae	W	0.139	It’s a poison plant, but it is used internally for the treatment of urinary tract disorders, diuretic, kidney stone.
Thymus syriacus Boiss. C* 69^ch**	زعتر (Zaatar)	Lamiaceae	L	0.695	An infusion of leaves is used internally as anti-cough, bronchitis, carminative, antispasmodic, anthelmintic and diabetes.
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. C* 70^ch**	حلبة (Halbeh)	Fabaceae	Sd	0.509	A decoction of seeds is used internally as antitussive, hypercholesterolaemia, galactagogue, atherosclerosis, diabetes, blood pressure, heartburn, cold, inflammations, topical massage for joint and bone pain, kidney stone, and to gain weight, the oil of seed is used externally for breast enlargement.
Triticum aestivum L. C* 71^ch**	حنطة (Hentah)	Poaceae	Sd	0.629	An infusion of seeds is used internally for constipation and obesity as the bran husk is used, it is used externally as compresses for skin itch.
Urtica dioica L. W* 72^ch**	قريص (Kurras)	Urticaceae	Ap, Sd	0.496	An infusion of flowering part and seeds is used internally for rheumatism, joint and chest pain, anaemia, digestive diseases, kidney disease, gall and diuretic, cough and respiratory system, and for cessation of nosebleeds, the oil is used externally for cases of hair loss and cases of burns.
Vicia faba L. C* 73^ch**	فول (Fool)	Fabaceae	Sd	0.529	Seeds are used internally as tonic, diuretic, beneficial to the heart, and for the menopause stage, diabetes.
Vitis vinifera L. C* 74^ch**	عنب (Aleunab)	Vitaceae	F	0.668	Grapes fruits are popularly used internally as an optimal food to revitalize the body, especially the brain, and it is a good food for the heart, and is considered one of the most important sources of energy for muscles, besides the fruits are used for constipation and gout, the seeds are used as antihypertensives and reduce blood sugar, The seeds are used for menstrual cramps and period regulation, dried fruits called (Zabeb) are used to strengthen the body's immunity, and as general tonic, the seed oil is used externally as tonic for hair, and for skin diseases, the fruits vinegar also used internally for slimming.
Xanthium strumarium L. W* 75^ch**	الحسك (Hasak)	Asteraceae	Sd	0.198	A decoction of seeds and leaves is used internally for infertility and impotency in males, galactagogue.
Zea mays L. C* 76^ch**	شباشيل الذرة (Shabashel el-zurah)	Poaceae	St	0.642	An infusion of corn stylus is used internally for regulating blood sugar, reducing cholesterol, as diuretic for kidney stone, weight loss, gout, bedwetting.

Ap: aerial parts; Bk: bark; Br: branches; Bu: buds; Bb: bulb; Ca: capitulum; Co: cones; Fl: flower; F: fruit; G: gum; Lx: latex; L: leaves; Ps: pedicles; Pe: peel; Ph: phloem; P: pods; Rs: resin; Rm: rhizome; R: root; Sd: seeds; S: stem; St: stylus; T: tubers; W: whole plant.

* C: cultivated plants, W: wild plants.

** Herbarium no.

Figure 1. Plant families commonly used in ethnomedicinal survey of central region in Syria (Homs and Hama).

Figure 2. Medicinal parts of the plants used for ethnomedicinal purposes in the study.

Figure 3. Modes of ethnomedicines preparation in Homs and Hama.

Figure 4. Ethno-medicinal information about treating different diseases related to central region in Syria (Homs and Hama).

[UNESCO] United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. 2019. Practices and craftsmanship associated with the Damascene rose in Al-Mrah (14.COM) on the representative list of the intangible cultural heritage of humanity. Paris: UNESCO; [Internet]; [accessed 2021 Feb 16]. https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/-01369.

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Data availability statement

Supplementary materials related to this article may be obtained from the authors upon request.