Gambling problems among United Kingdom armed forces veterans: Associations with gambling motivation and posttraumatic stress disorder

Figures & data

Table 1. Sociodemographic characteristics of the veterans’ and non-veterans’ samples.

	Veterans (n = 1,037)		Non-veterans (n = 1,148)		p
	n	%	n	%
Gender
Male	970	93.5	1054	91.8	.123	.278
Female	64	6.2	91	7.9	.111
Other	3	0.3	3	0.3	.901
Age
18–29	63	6.1	73	6.4	.788	1.00
30–39	346	33.4	383	33.4	.986
40–49	201	19.4	221	19.3	.929
50–59	222	21.4	246	21.4	1.00
60–69	155	15.0	171	14.9	.966
70–79	40	3.9	45	3.9	.943
80+	9	0.9	9	0.8	.827
Country
England	805	77.6	965	84.1	<.001^‡	<.001^‡
Wales	127	12.2	76	6.6	<.001^‡
Scotland	67	6.5	84	7.3	.431
Northern Ireland	28	2.7	23	2.0	.282
Other	10	1.0	0	0.0	.001^‡
Ethnicity
White British	960	92.6	1020	88.9	.003^‡
Other	77	7.4	128	11.1
Marital Status
Single	103	9.9	243	21.2	<.001^‡	<.001^‡
In a relationship	95	9.2	160	13.9	.001^‡
Co-habiting	47	4.5	138	12.0	<.001^‡
Married	510	49.2	440	38.3	<.001^‡
Married 2nd+	166	16.0	87	7.6	<.001^‡
Separated	25	2.4	22	1.9	.426
Divorced	70	6.8	45	3.9	.003^‡
Widowed	21	2.0	13	1.1	.092
Employment
Unemployed, not actively seeking	14	1.4	24	2.1	.186	.010^†
Unemployed, actively seeking	55	5.5	63	5.3	.849
In training/education	24	2.3	15	1.3	.076
In sheltered work	9	0.9	0	0.0	.002^‡
In paid employment	704	67.9	810	70.6	.177
Not working due to long term illness	64	6.2	51	4.4	.071
Looking after home/family	20	1.9	21	1.8	.864
Retired	147	14.2	164	14.3	.941
Highest Qualification ^a
No formal qualification	63	6.1	24	2.1	<.001^‡	<.001^‡
Entry certificate	34	3.3	16	1.4	.003^‡
GCSE D-G	153	14.8	83	7.2	<.001^‡
GCSE A*-C	311	30.0	156	13.6	<.001^‡
AS/A level	153	14.8	199	17.3	.101
Certificate of HE	125	12.1	87	7.6	<.001^‡
Bachelor’s degree	116	11.2	355	30.9	<.001^‡
Master’s degree	78	7.5	189	16.5	<.001^‡
Doctorate	4	0.4	39	3.4	<.001^‡
Household Arrangement
Live alone	180	17.4	201	17.5	.926	.008^‡
Live with family	844	81.4	910	79.3	.214
Live with non-family	13	1.3	37	3.2	.002^‡
Accommodation
Domestic/family	130	12.5	146	12.7	.898	<.001^‡
Owner	493	47.5	637	55.1	<.001^‡
Privately rented	211	20.3	250	21.8	.413
Rented from local authority	163	15.7	106	9.2	<.001^‡
Community/supported living	37	3.6	6	0.5	<.001^‡
Homeless	3	0.3	0	0.0	.068
Other	0	0.0	3	0.3	.099
Benefits
Yes	475	45.8	269	23.5	<.001^‡
No	562	54.2	877	76.5

^aQualification categories describe qualifications based on the English educational qualification system of equivalent level of attainment and may not be the qualification the respondent holds. p = Significance of Pearson’s χ² test. ^† Indicates significance where p < 0.05. ‡ Indicates significance where p < 0.01

Table 2. Military demographic characteristics of the veterans’ sample.

	Veterans (n = 1,037)
	n	%
Service (includes reserves)
Army	671	64.7
Royal Navy/Royal Marines/Royal Fleet Auxiliary	220	21.2
Royal Air Force (RAF)	142	13.7
Rank at discharge
Commissioned Officer	78	7.5
NCO/Other ranks	835	80.5
Length of service
0–4 years (early leavers)	245	23.6
5–9 years	413	39.8
10–19 years	193	18.6
20+ years	182	17.6
Discharge status
Medical discharge	96	9.3
Premature Voluntary Release (PVR)	329	31.7
End of engagement	391	37.7
Administrative	47	4.5
Compulsory	56	5.4
Redundancy	58	5.6
Other	27	2.6
Years since leaving service
0–8 years	220	21.2
9–13 years	277	26.7
14–24 years	257	24.8
25+ years	252	24.3
Location of deployment ^a
Falkland Islands	177	17.1
Gulf War	88	8.5
Northern Ireland	352	33.9
Bosnia and Kosovo	170	16.4
Afghanistan	163	15.7
Iraq (Op TELIC)	151	14.6
Other ^b	447	43.1
None	164	15.8

Notes: ^aRespondents were able to select more than one deployment location. ^bIncludes minor conflicts or international non-combat theater deployments.

Table 3. Gambling activities, severity, and motivation for veterans and non-veterans who had participated in gambling activities within the past year.

	Veterans (n = 949; 91.5%)		Non-veterans (n = 815; 71%)		p	OR (95%CIs)
	n	%	n	%
Gambling Activity
National Lottery	601	63.3	580	71.2	<.001^‡
Scratch cards	384	40.5	272	33.4	.002^‡
Any other lottery	336	35.4	154	18.9	<.001^‡
Football pools	191	20.1	51	6.3	<.001^‡
Bingo	157	16.5	29	3.6	<.001^‡
Fruit or slot machines	283	29.8	83	10.2	<.001^‡
Virtual gambling machines	205	21.6	70	8.6	<.001^‡
Casino table games	174	18.3	36	4.4	<.001^‡
Poker	119	12.5	21	2.6	<.001^‡
Online gambling (e.g. casino games)	247	26.0	189	23.2	.168
Online betting	257	27.1	322	39.5	<.001^‡
Betting exchange	122	12.9	122	15.0	.200
Horse racing	255	26.9	112	13.9	<.001^‡
Dog racing	129	13.6	27	3.3	<.001^‡
Sports betting	200	21.1	110	13.5	<.001^‡
Other event betting	107	11.3	43	5.3	<.001^‡
Spread betting	96	10.1	27	3.3	<.001^‡
Private betting	180	19.0	52	6.4	<.001^‡
Any other gambling	23	2.4	17	2.4	.635
Total activities
Mean (SD)	4.28 (3.14)		2.85 (2.33)		<.001^‡
Gambling Severity
Non-problem gambling (PGSI score 0)	357	37.7	546	67.0	<.001^‡	0.30 (0.25–0.36)
Low-risk gambling (PGSI score 1–2)	80	8.4	125	15.3	<.001^‡	0.51 (0.38–0.69)
Moderate-risk gambling (PGSI score 3–7)	102	10.8	91	11.2	.791	0.96 (0.71–1.30)
Problem gambling (PGSI score ≥ 8)	408	43.1	53	6.5	<.001^‡	10.88 (8.01–14.79)
Gambling Motivation
Positive Reinforcement	569	60.0	241	29.6	<.001^‡	0.28 (0.23 – .0.34)
Negative Reinforcement	326	34.4	54	6.6	<.001^‡	7.37 (5.43–10.02)

Notes: p = Significance of Pearson’s χ² test, except for total activities where the significance of a t-test is presented. ^† Indicates significance where p < 0.05. ^‡ Indicates significance where p < 0.01

Table 4. Comparison of mental health outcome variables between veterans and non-veterans.

	Veterans		Non-veterans		p		OR (95% CI)
	n	%	n	%
Depression	1002		1145
No Depression	305	30.4	630	55.0	<.001^‡	<.001^‡	0.36 (0.30–0.43)
Mild	269	26.8	274	23.9	.121		1.17 (0.96–1.42)
Moderate	271	27.0	116	10.1	<.001^‡		3.30 (2.59–4.17)
Moderately Severe	72	7.2	87	7.6	.716		0.94 (0.68–1.30)
Severe	85	8.5	38	3.3	<.001^‡		2.70 (1.82–4.00)
Anxiety	1002		1145
No Anxiety	388	38.7	743	64.9	<.001^‡	<.001^‡	0.34 (0.29–0.41)
Mild	354	35.3	224	19.6	<.001^‡		2.25 (1.85–2.73)
Moderate	167	16.7	106	9.3	<.001^‡		1.96 (1.51–2.54)
Severe	93	9.3	72	6.3	.009^‡		1.53 (1.11–2.10)
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder	852		1148
No Diagnosis	552	64.8	1064	92.7	<.001^‡	<.001^‡	0.15 (0.11–0.19)
Likely PTSD	73	8.6	26	2.3	<.001^‡		4.04 (2.56–6.39)
Likely C-PTSD	227	26.6	58	5.1	<.001^‡		6.83 (5.03–9.26)
Alcohol Use	967		1138
nondrinker	112	11.6	170	14.9	.024	<.001^‡	0.75 (0.58–0.96)
Lower Risk	239	24.7	598	52.5	<.001^‡		0.30 (0.25–0.36)
Increasing Risk	332	34.3	271	23.8	<.001^‡		1.67 (1.38–2.02)
Higher Risk	144	14.9	38	3.3	<.001^‡		5.07 (3.50–7.32)
Possible Alcohol Dependence	140	14.5	61	5.4	<.001^‡		2.99 (2.18–4.09)
Nicotine Dependence	965		1137
Nonsmoker	587	60.8	976	85.8	<.001^‡	<.001^‡	0.26 (0.21–0.32)
Very Low	1	0.1	1	0.1	.908		1.18 (0.07–18.86)
Low	39	4.0	57	5.0	.287		0.80 (0.53–1.21)
Medium	143	14.8	40	3.5	<.001^‡		4.77 (3.32–6.85)
High	162	16.8	58	5.1	<.001^‡		3.75 (2.74–5.13)
Very High	34	3.5	6	0.5	<.001^‡		6.88 (2.88–16.47)

Notes: Sample respondent totals reported for each measure. p = Significance of Pearson’s χ2 test. OR: unadjusted Odds Ratio. 95% CI: Upper and lower bound 95% confidence intervals. † Indicates significance where p < 0.05. ‡ Indicates significance where p < 0.01.

Table 5. Stepwise multiple linear regression models for clustered theoretical predictors of veterans’ continuous PGSI scores.

	Sociodemographics				Military Demographics				Mental Health				Gambling
Model Summary
R	.54				.59				.59				.73
R^2	.29				.35				.35				.54
Adjusted R^2	.28				.34				.34				.54
p	<.001				<.001				<.001				<.001
Significant Predictors	B	β	t	p	B	β	t	p	B	β	t	p	B	β	t	p
(Constant)	15.72		16.42	<.001	7.86		18.81	<.001	8.69		17.29	<.001	.046		0.15	<.001
Age	−0.20	−.40	−13.83	<.001
Ethnicity	−2.55	−.11	−3.77	<.001
Benefits	2.41	.19	6.71	<.001
Relationship Status (Married)	1.11	.09	3.02	.003
Highest Qualification (Doctorate)	−6.35	−.07	−2.33	.020
Accommodation (Private Rent)	0.97	.06	2.14	.033
Accommodation (Supported Living)	4.23	.12	4.27	<.001
Live with Non-Family	−3.92	−.06	−2.24	.025
Length of Service (20+ Years)					−6.70	−.40	−12.84	<.001
Length of Service (10–19 Years)					−2.75	−.16	−5.44	<.001
Length of Service (0–4 Years)					1.86	.13	4.09	<.001
Years Since Discharge (25+ Years)					−2.80	−.19	−6.35	<.001
Years Since Discharge (9–13 Years)					2.76	.20	6.69	<.001
Branch (Royal Navy)					1.04	.07	2.46	.014
Not Deployed					−1.57	−.09	−3.14	.002
Discharge (Other)					−4.17	−.11	−3.82	<.001
Discharge (At Own Request)					−1.07	−.08	−2.65	.008
Discharge (Medical)					−1.46	−.07	−2.41	.016
PHQ-9 (No Depression)									−3.18	−.23	−6.18	<.001
GAD-7 (Mild Anxiety)									1.02	.08	2.22	.026
GAD-7 (Severe Anxiety)									−2.07	−.09	−2.83	.005
AUDIT (Lower Risk Drinking)									−1.35	−.09	−2.83	.005
AUDIT (Higher Risk Drinking)									2.08	.11	3.56	<.001
AUDIT (Possible Alcohol Dependence)									3.10	.18	5.56	<.001
ITQ PTSD (No PTSD)									−3.85	−.29	−8.55	<.001
Number of Gambling Activities													0.72	.35	14.97	<.001
GFA-R (Negative Reinforcement)													7.86	.59	20.00	<.001
GFA-R (Positive Reinforcement)													0.83	.06	2.25	.025

Preregistration statement

No preregistration was declared by the authors in relation to this manuscript.

Data availability statement

The data described in this article are openly available in the Open Science Framework at https://osf.io/km8wx/