Locating and applying sociological theories of risk-taking to develop public health interventions for adolescents

Figures & data

Figure 1. Results of search to locate theories of risk-taking

Table 1. Categories of theory relating to risk-taking, identified from the 32 publications.

1. Lack of social integration

Durkheim (1952) theorised that strong social ties could protect against an extreme form of risk-taking (suicide), a theory applied to youth suicide (Eckersley & Dear, 2002; Willis, Coombs, Cockerham, & Frison, 2002).

2. Isolation from mainstream society

Serious and/or persistent risk-taking is associated with isolation from mainstream society (Douglas & Calvez, 1990; Lightfoot, 1997). Becker (1963) suggests this relationship is causal, i.e., labelling a person as ‘deviant’ results in their isolation, leading them to join a ‘deviant subculture’ and continue risk-taking.

3. Rites of passage

In the absence of formal rites of passage (Van Gennep, [1909] 1960) young people in contemporary Western society create their own spontaneous rites of passage which may be harmful (Robb, 1986; Garrett, 1996).

4. A response to social constraints

Social and institutional constraints may result in risk-taking (Lyng, 1990, Lyng, 2005) particularly in the context of low social status (Miller, 2005). Risk-taking may be a means of taking control (Denscombe, 2001).

5. Resistance

Non-dominant minority groups engage in risk-taking activities as a subtle form of resistance to the dominant group (Factor, Kawachi, & Williams, 2011). Discrimination and alienation increase the likelihood of risk-taking activities, particularly amongst the young. Other, less clearly articulated theories of resistance are provided by Burr (1984), Wearing, Wearing, and Kelly (1994) and Peretti-Watel and Moatti (2006).

6. An aspect of adolescent development

Risk-taking is part of the repertoire young people draw upon to construct their identities (Denscombe, 2001; Lightfoot, 1997). Risk-taking (Christensen & Mikkelson, 2008) and narratives about risk-taking (Green, 1997; Lightfoot, 1997) consolidate group membership and mediate group boundaries.

7. Habitus

According to Bourdieu (1977, 1984) what people do, i.e., their practice, which includes health-related behaviour, is routine but formed in the context of their social location, thereby instilling a view of the world based upon and consistent with their position in it. The habitus leads them to perpetuate existing social structures while maintaining a degree of personal agency. Williams (1995), Lindbladh et al. (1996), Lindbladh and Lyttkens (2002), Crawshaw (2004), Dixon and Banwell (2009) apply the theory of the habitus to health-related behaviour and risk-taking. Habituation and routine are as important as calculative thinking in the context of risk-taking (Bloor, 1995).

8. Situated rationality and social action theories

A person's risk-taking can be seen as rational when set in the context of the other risks they face. Risk-taking occurs in context of social relationships which in turn are embedded in wider patterns of power and inequality (Rhodes, 1997).

9. Collective action and social practice

Risk-taking is not just about an individual's behaviour (Becker, 1963; Chan, Deave, & Greenhalgh, 2010; Delormier, Frohlich, and Potvin, 2009; Frohlich, Corin, & Potvin, 2001, Frohlich, Potvin, Chabot, & Corin, 2002). All aspects of risk-taking should be the focus of research, including those who define activities as ‘risky’, the social institutions that make risk-taking possible, where and how risk-taking occurs, and how it is viewed.

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