Strategies for robustness: Five perspectives on how policy design is done

Figures & data

Table 1.: Key characteristics of the different strategy perspectives.

	Strategy is…	Success is assessed by…	A good strategist is…	Strategy tools are used as…
Rational-Expert	A deliberate, precise and integrated long-term plan or roadmap	The contribution to the achievement of key performance indicators	A planner with analytical skills and expertise	Analyses that identify the best steps to take
Leadership	An inspiring vision that is propagated by leaders	The drive and passion the strategy generates with people	A visionary leader with the ability to convey ideas	Means to communicate the vision, and to deliver evidence for it
Sensemaking	A process of collective sensemaking by actors that gives them a shared meaning of what the organization	The ability of a strategy to create shared meaning	A facilitator and connector with communicative skills	Enablers to engage in a conversation
Political Power game	Bargaining with stakeholders (in or outside the organization) to forge the winning coalition necessary to achieve a goal	The ability of the strategy to generate a majority, and/or pacify the opposition to it	A negotiator with a feeling for politics and interests	Tools or ‘weapons’ to influence stakeholders
Capacity-building	Building the capacity to respond to yet unknown emerging changes	The ability to notice, assess, and appraise developments early and respond to them	A scout who nurtures and stimulates the open mindset of the organization	Means to remain alert and reflective

Table 2. Differences between classical survey research and survey feedback method.

Survey method	Survey feedback method
Emphasis on knowledge by measuring Results conceived as representation of reality Results interpret by researcher Reporting of results seen as final outcome Field perceives findings and conclusions as information Researcher focuses on careful execution of research	Emphasis on learning from outcomes Results conceived as starting point for conversation and discussion Results interpret jointly by researcher and respondents Reporting of results seen as intermediate outcome Field coproduces findings and conclusions Researcher as facilitator of the process of sensemaking

Figure 1. Example of an individual score sheet.

Table 3. The front-stage and back-stage of strategy.

Back stage: what solving a complex policy problem ‘really is’	Front stage: what they ‘pretend solving a policy problem to be’
Incremental, creative, improvising	Rational, analytical, comprehensive
The essence of a robust design is the capacity to stay alert, to expecting the unexpected, and to respond quickly to emergent changes.	The essence of a robust design is to clarify strategic goals, model the environment, and design a plan to systematically work towards the goals.
Formulation and execution are intertwined and interdependent ‘phases’ of a policy; a robust design requires the possibility of continuous re-design.	There is clear distinction between formulation and implementation of policy; changes can be made, but only at designated times and in case of serious flaws in the original design.
A good strategy is adaptive: it holds the capability to notice emerging trends early and formulate a strategic response to it.	A good strategy is grounded in consensus on mission, values, and vision, and supported by rigorous, ongoing analysis
Measurement helps to see if the strategy works, but predetermined milestones can draw attention to the wrong issues.	What is measured gets done. Milestones are used to check if the strategy is working and should be adapted.
Politics is part of that process; it is a core-function of strategy to build a base of support, and deal with the ‘losers’ of the strategy process.	Politics is not part of the strategy-process; rational arguments dominate, decisions are made on the basis of information, politics should be organized ‘out’ of the process.

Table

1.In practice, strategy is about …

2.In my opinion, good strategy should be about …

a. having a deliberate, carefully articulated, precise and integrated long-term plan

b. leader(s) articulating an inspiring vision to be disseminated internally and externally

c. collective sense making and developing a shared meaning by all relevant stakeholders

d. influencing others towards agreement about organizational goals and priorities

e. developing immediate responses to emerging changes in our environment

7.In practice, the success or failure of our strategy is assessed in terms of …

8.In my opinion, good strategy should be judged on …

a. its contribution to our ability to consistently achieve our key performance indicators

b. the drive and passion it generates in people in knowing where we are going

c. its ability to create shared meaning within the organization

d. its fungibility in the power game within and around the organization

e. the resilience it brings to the organization

9.In practice, strategists are primarily …

10. In my opinion, good strategists should be …

a. planners & experts with analytical skills and expert knowledge

b. visionary leader(s) with imaginative skills and strong intuitions

c. facilitators & connectors, with communication skills and connective capacity

d. power brokers & negotiators, with bargaining skills and good political instincts

e. explorers & boundary workers with a penchant for increasing our agility and flexibility

11.In practice, strategy tools are used to …

12.In my opinion, strategy tools should be used to/as …

a. get a well substantiated analysis to establish the right courses of action

b. articulate and communicate the visions that will inspire members of the organization

c. get the conversation going about external and internal conditions, aspirations and actions

d. influence key players towards agreement about goals and allocation of means and gains

e. levers to help us stay alert and agile

Table

Strategy perspective	Strategy is…	Strategy should be	Successful strategy assessed by…	Successful strategy should be assessed by…	A good strategist is…	A good strategist should be…	Strategy tools are used for…	Strategy tools should be used for…
P1	A deliberate, precise and integrated long-term plan or roadmap	A deliberate, precise and integrated long-term plan or roadmap	Its contribution to the achievement of key performance indicators	Its contribution to the achievement of key performance indicators	A planner with analytical skills and expertise	A planner with analytical skills and expertise	Making good analyses that indicate the right steps to take	Making good analyses that indicate the right steps to take
	Mean: 2,9	Mean: 2,7	Mean: 3,3	Mean: 2,9	Mean: 3,1	Mean: 2,3	Mean: 3,2	Mean: 2,7
	Stddev: 1,5	Stddev: 1,5	Stddev: 1,4	Stddev: 1,3	Stddev: 1,5	Stddev: 1,3	Stddev: 1,5	Stddev: 1,4
P2	An inspiring vision that is propagated by leaders	An inspiring vision that is propagated by leaders	The drive and passion it generates with people	The drive and passion it generates with people	A visionary leader with the ability to convey ideas	A visionary leader with the ability to convey ideas	Describing and communicating visions that inspire people	Describing and communicating visions that inspire people
	Mean: 2,8	Mean: 3,4	Mean: 2,7	Mean: 3,6	Mean: 2,7	Mean: 3,3	Mean:3	Mean: 3,1
	Stddev: 1,3	Stddev: 1,3	Stddev: 1,4	Stddev: 1,2	Stddev: 1,2	Stddev: 1,4	Stddev: 1,3	Stddev: 1,3
P3	A process of collective sense-making by actors that gives them a shared meaning of what the organization	A process of collective sense-making by actors that gives them a shared meaning of what the organization	Its ability to create shared meaning	Its ability to create shared meaning	A facilitator and connector with communicative skills	A facilitator and connector with communicative skills	Continuing conversation about internal and external circumstances, actions and ambitions	Continuing conversation about internal and external circumstances, actions and ambitions
	Mean: 2,9	Mean: 3,8	Mean: 3,2	Mean: 3,5	Mean: 3,1	Mean: 3,5	Mean: 3,2	Mean: 3,5
	Stddev: 1,3	Stddev: 1,2	Stddev: 1,2	Stddev: 1,2	Stddev: 1,4	Stddev: 1,2	Stddev: 1,3	Stddev: 1,4
P4	Bargaining with stakeholders (in or outside the organization) to forge the ‘winning coalition’ necessary to achieve a goal	Bargaining with stakeholders (in or outside the organization) to forge the ‘winning coalition’ necessary to achieve a goal	Its ability for exchange in negotiation in and around the organization	Its ability for exchange in negotiation in and around the organization	A negotiator with a feeling for politics and interests	A negotiator with a feeling for politics and interests	Influencing key actors to achieve a distribution of goals and profits	Influencing key actors to achieve a distribution of goals and profits
	Mean: 3,3	Mean: 2,9	Mean: 3,4	Mean: 2,5	Mean: 3,6	Mean: 2,8	Mean: 3,3	Mean: 2,9
	Std.dev: 1,5	Stddev: 1,3	Stddev: 1,4	Stddev: 1,5	Stddev: 1,4	Stddev: 1,4	Stddev: 1,5	Stddev: 1,4
P5	Developing the capacity to immediately respond to unknown and/or emerging changes	Developing the capacity to immediately respond to unknown and/or emerging changes	Its achievement of resilience of the organization	Its achievement of resilience of the organization	A scout who works on the flexibility and movability of the organization	A scout who works on the flexibility and movability of the organization	Staying alert and reflexive	Staying alert and reflexive
	Mean: 3,1	Mean: 2,2	Mean: 2,4	Mean: 2,6	Mean: 2,4	Mean: 3,1	Mean: 2,4	Mean: 2,7
	Stddev: 1,5	Stddev: 1,3	Stddev: 1,3	Stddev: 1,4	Stddev: 1,4	Stddev: 1,5	Stddev: 1,3	Stddev: 1,4

Summary of survey data (N = 99).