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Notes
1. Jay Appleton, ‘Some thoughts on the Geology of the Picturesque’, Journal of Garden History, vi/3, 1986, pp. 270–291.
2. For example, the population of the US more than tripled during the second half of the nineteenth century, with the largest numbers of people living in cities. New York’s population increased more than six-fold, while Boston’s population quadrupled. In 1850, the US population was 23 191 876; NYC 515 547 and Boston 136 881. By 1900, the US Population was 76 212 168, NYC 3 437 202, Boston 560 892 (http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027/tab13.txt). Manhattan began its expansion in 1811, reaching its limit at 155th Street in only five decades. For an interactive map of the development of the street grid in Manhattan see ‘How Manhattan’s Grid Grew’ The New York Times 20 March 2011. By 1910, Metropolitan Boston covered an area of 414 square miles, becoming the fourth largest metropolitan area in the country. James O’Connell, The Hub’s Metropolis. Greater Boston’s Development from Railroad Suburbs to Smart Growth (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2013), p. 5.
3. Settlement occurred in Massachusetts in a piecemeal way, from the shore inland. Colonists were granted the right to settle in discreet units of approximately six square miles. Townships eventually consolidated as independent political and administrative units that managed their own territories regardless of adjacencies, shared topographic elements, or drainage patterns. The result was that by the 1850s 36 different political units had been established, each with their own independent government, water, fire, and sewer systems, and most, if not all, lands held in private hands. When Eliot and Baxter described the fragmentation of the territory they were essentially referring to a process that accrued over more than two centuries, that lacked coordination across boundaries, and that was driven by the interests of private land ownership. See: Sylvester Baxter, ‘Greater Boston. A Study for a Federalized Metropolis Comprising the City of Boston and Surrounding Cities and Towns’, The Boston Herald (January 1891).
4. For an excellent summary of Charles Eliot’s life see Keith N. Morgan, ‘Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect: An Introduction to His Life and Work’, Arnoldia, Summer 1999, pp. 3–22.
5. Henry David Thoreau (1962), Walking (Bedford: Applewood Books, 2013). For Eliot’s walking tours in the environs of Boston see Charles W. Eliot, Charles Eliot Landscape Architect (Boston: Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1902), pp. 13–15, and 745.
6. Rebecca Bailey Bedell, The Anatomy of Nature: Geology and American Landscape Painting: 1825–1875 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001).
7. Eliot might have known Ruskin initially through his father’s first cousin, Charles Eliot Norton, a very close friend of Ruskin and executor of his estate. He also read Ruskin as part of his general studies, and then encountered him again in the context of landscape architecture through Olmsted.
8. John Ruskin, ‘Of Truth of Earth’ in Modern Painters, Vol. I, Part II, Section IV (1844), pp. 270–308. On the relation between geology and ruins in Ruskin’s thinking see John Dixon Hunt, ‘Pictures, Picturesque, Places’, Gardens and the Picturesque (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992), pp. 171–239.
9. Ibid., p. 270.
10. Modern Painters, Vol. I, Preface to second edition (1844), pp. xli–xliii.
11. This is Scottish geologist James Hutton’s famous phrase, which introduced in 1788 the concept of deep time, a time scale far larger than the human imagination can grasp. See Stephen Jay Gould, Time’s Arrow Time’s Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987).
12. Modern Painters, p. xxix.
13. Ibid., pp. xxxvi–xxxvii.
14. Ibid., p. 51.
15. Charles Eliot, ‘Report of the Landscape Architect’ in Report of the Board of Metropolitan Park Commissioners (Boston, MA: January 1893), pp. 82–110.
16. Ibid., p. 83.
17. Ibid., p. 84.
18. Ibid., pp. 84–85.
19. Stephen Jay Gould, Time’s Arrow Time’s Cycle. Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987).
20. Eliot, op. cit., p. 87.
21. Ibid., p. 90.
22. Ibid., p. 89.
23. For the history of urban transformations in Boston see Walter Muir Whitehill, Boston. A Topographical History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979). Karl Haglund, Inventing the Charles River (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003), Nancy S. Seasholes, Gaining Ground: A History of Landmaking in Boston (Cambridge, MA:, MIT Press, 2003) and Alex Krieger and David Cobb (eds), Mapping Boston (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999).
24. Eliot, op. cit., p. 86.
25. See John Dixon Hunt, ‘Sense and Sensibility in the Landscape Designs of Humphrey Repton’ for a discussion of how observation, seeing, and thinking are differentiated in the ideas of Humphrey Repton. Gardens and the Picturesque (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1992), pp. 139–168.
26. Denis E. Cosgrove, ‘Introductory Essay for the Paperback Edition’ Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape (1984) (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), p. xi.
27. Eliot, op. cit., p. 82.
28. Ibid., p. 82.
29. Martin J. S. Rudwick, ‘A Visual Language for Geology’ in History of Science, 14/11976, pp. 149–195. By the ‘modern geologic map’ Rudwick means the period between the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, when standard visual conventions of representation were established and used in all geologic maps.
30. John Wesley Powell, Arid Region of the USA Showing Drainage Districts, 1890.
31. Charles W. Eliot, Charles Eliot Landscape Architect (Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1903 [1902]), p. 496.
32. Vegetation and Scenery in the Metropolitan Reservations of Boston (Boston, Lamson, Wolffe & Co., 1898). The sketches are signed by Arthur Shurcliff.