A longitudinal study of child adjustment during the COVID-19 pandemic: the protective role of the parent-child relationship in middle childhood

Figures & data

Figure 1. Data collection and timeline of the COVID-19 restrictions in Quebec during the first months of the Pandemic.

Note. *Time 1 recruitment ended before May 11th in small towns.

Table 1. Descriptive data and correlations between study variables and sociodemographic characteristics.

	Mean (SD)	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	7.	8.	9.	10.	11.	12.
1. Child age (months)	129.84 (14.05)	–
2. Parent education (y)	15.93 (3.31)	.04	–
3. Family income	103,464 (62,462)	.01	.50***	–
4. Daily screen time (h)	4.16 (2.11)	.20*	−.05	.03	–
5. Externalizing T1	55.89 (10.63)	−.06	−.23**	−.09	.00	–
6. Externalizing T2	52.41 (11.22)	−.05	−.07	−.11	.00	.83***	–
7. Externalizing T3	51.34 (10.56)	−.10	−.11	−.03	.02	.81***	.83***	–
8. Internalizing T1	51.42 (9.20)	.09	−.38***	−.14	.07	.31***	.20*	.26***	–
9. Internalizing T2	44.53 (9.47)	−.02	−.34***	−.20*	.06	.27***	.18*	.24**	.66***	–
10. Internalizing T3	45.56 (9.30)	−.12	−.34***	−.23**	.09	.34***	.28***	.31***	.57***	.71***	–
11. Sleep problems T1	2.07 (1.69)	.01	−.13	−.03	.17*	.25***	.25**	.27***	.66***	.51***	.46***	–
12. Sleep problems T2	1.59 (1.50)	−.02	−.16*	−.11	.06	.22**	.20**	.19*	.45***	.64***	.48***	.54***	–
13. Sleep problems T3	1.39 (1.44)	−.07	−.15	−.13	.10	.24**	.24**	.27***	.41***	.43***	.67***	.48***	.62***

T1 = during lockdown; T2 = during partial deconfinement; T3 = during total deconfinement.

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Table 2. Comparisons of parent-child relationship groups on sociodemographic characteristics.

	Parent-child conflict			Parent-child closeness			Attachment security
	Less (n = 87) M (SD)	More (n = 80) M (SD)	t-test	Less (n = 83) M (SD)	More (n = 84) M (SD)	t-test	Less (n = 83) M (SD)	More (n = 84) M (SD)	t-test
Child age (months)	130.69 (14.09)	128.93 (14.04)	0.81	132.39 (14.32)	127.33 (13.39)	2.36*	127.60 (13.59)	132.06 (14.22)	−2.07*
Parent education	15.93 (3.24)	15.94 (3.40)	−0.02	15.57 (3.14)	16.29 (3.45)	−1.40	15.36 (2.88)	16.50 (3.61)	−2.26*
Family income	97,672 (51,712)	109,762 (72,178)	−1.25	89,156 (50,951)	117,601 (69,506)	−3.01**	94,343 (48,253)	112,476 (73,055)	−1.90
Daily screen time	4.08 (2.12)	4.25 (2.11)	−0.52	4.54 (2.20)	3.78 (1.96)	2.35*	4.30 (2.22)	4.03 (2.00)	.76
	n (%)	n (%)	Chi^2	n (%)	n (%)	Chi^2	n (%)	n (%)	Chi^2
Child sex			2.64			7.33**			1.35
Girls	49 (56%)	35 (44%)		33 (40%)	51 (61%)		38 (46%)	46 (55%)
Boys	38 (44%)	45 (56%)		50 (60%)	33 (39%)		45 (54%)	38 (45%)
Marital status			1.11			8.36**			0.37
Single	21 (24%)	14 (18%)		25 (30%)	10 (12%)		19 (23%)	16 (19%)
Married/partnered	66 (76%)	66 (82%)		58 (70%)	74 (88%)		64 (77%)	68 (81%)

* p < .05. ** p < .01.

Table 3. Repeated measures ANCOVAs on child maladaptation as a function of parent-child conflict.

	Less conflict n = 87	More conflict n = 80	ANCOVA
	M (SD)	M (SD)	Effect	F ratio	Partial η^2
Externalizing problems^a
T1	49.56 (8.74)	62.76 (7.89)	T	13.77***	.08
T2	46.37 (8.59)	58.99 (10.01)	G	92.45***	.36
T3	46.41 (9.23)	56.69 (9.26)	GxT	5.12**	.03
Internalizing problems^b
T1	49.44 (8.47)	53.58 (9.53)	T	9.41***	.06
T2	43.51 (9.56)	45.65 (9.29)	G	8.56**	.05
T3	44.02 (8.64)	47.24 (9.74)	GxT	0.61	.004
Sleep problems^c
T1	1.68 (1.54)	2.50 (1.74)	T	1.04	.01
T2	1.43 (1.50)	1.78 (1.49)	G	8.11**	.05
T3	1.16 (1.52)	1.66 (1.32)	GxT	2.05	.01

T1 = during lockdown; T2 = during partial deconfinement; T3 = during total deconfinement; T = Time; G = Group; GxT = Group x Time.

^aControlling for parent education. ^bControlling for parent education, child sex and family income before COVID-19. ^cControlling for parent education and daily screen time use.

** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Figure 2. Change in externalizing problems over time as a function of parent-child conflict.

Note. Scores of externalizing problems include parent education as a covariate.

Table 4. Repeated measures ANCOVAs on child maladaptation as a function of parent-child closeness.

	Less closeness n = 83	More closeness n = 84	ANCOVA
	M (SD)	M (SD)	Effect	F ratio	Partial η^2
Externalizing problems^a
T1	57.94 (10.65)	53.86 (10.26)	T	13.21***	.08
T2	54.54 (11.63)	50.31 (10.45)	G	5.62*	.03
T3	53.10 (10.84)	49.60 (10.03)	GxT	0.34	.002
Internalizing problems^b
T1	53.01 (9.65)	49.85 (8.50)	T	8.87***	.05
T2	45.37 (9.64)	43.70 (9.27)	G	2.13	.01
T3	46.51 (9.94)	44.63 (8.58)	GxT	1.04	.01
Sleep problems^c
T1	2.34 (1.84)	1.81 (1.49)	T	0.70	.00
T2	1.65 (1.53)	1.54 (1.48)	G	1.29	.01
T3	1.57 (1.47)	1.24 (1.41)	GxT	1.18	.01

T1 = during lockdown; T2 = during partial deconfinement; T3 = during total deconfinement; T = Time; G = Group; GxT = Group x Time.

^aControlling for parent education. ^bControlling for parent education, child sex and family income before COVID-19. ^cControlling for parent education and daily screen time use.

* p < .05. *** p < .001.

Table 5. Repeated measures ANCOVAs on child maladaptation as a function of attachment security.

	Less secure n = 83	More secure n = 84	ANCOVA
	M (SD)	M (SD)	Effect	F ratio	Partial η^2
Externalizing problems^a
T1	57.01 (11.45)	54.77 (9.69)	T	12.96***	.07
T2	53.06 (12.83)	51.77 (9.41)	G	0.90	.01
T3	52.52 (10.92)	50.17 (10.12)	GxT	0.49	.003
Internalizing problems^b
T1	54.31 (8.95)	48.56 (8.58)	T	9.59***	.06
T2	47.39 (8.48)	41.71 (9.59)	G	16.11***	.09
T3	48.06 (9.02)	43.10 (8.95)	GxT	0.48	.03
Sleep problems^c
T1	2.54 (1.68)	1.61 (1.57)	T	0.18	.00
T2	1.71 (1.43)	1.48 (1.57)	G	2.47	.02
T3	1.41 (1.34)	1.39 (1.55)	GxT	9.03***	.05

T1 = during lockdown; T2 = during partial deconfinement; T3 = during total deconfinement; T = Time; G = Group; G x T = Group x Time.

^aControlling for parent education. ^bControlling for parent education, child sex and family income before COVID-19. ^cControlling for parent education and daily screen time use.

***p < .001.

Figure 3. Change in sleep problems over time as a function of attachment security to parent.

Note. Scores of sleep problems include parent education and daily screen time use as covariates.