Perceived discrimination as legacy: Korean immigrants’ job attitudes and career prospects at Korean multinational enterprises in the USA

ABSTRACT

In this study, we examine how Korean immigrants employed at co-ethnic multinational enterprises (MNEs) perceive their work experiences based on their past employment in the USA. Using 63 in-depth interviews conducted from June 2012 to December 2014, we found that Korean immigrants have different job attitudes and career prospects depending on their experiences of workplace discrimination in the USA. The findings suggest that immigrants who previously worked in the mainstream economy have developed a higher level of racial/ethnic awareness through racialized experience than their counterparts who only worked for co-ethnic employers. Such disparities in awareness shape the workers’ job attitudes and their career prospects. We conclude that the knowledge on the host society’s racial/ethnic stratification, once established, comes into effect continuously in immigrants’ lives and strongly influences the immigrants’ attitudes toward their socioeconomic incorporation.

KEYWORDS:

• Korean immigration
• labor market discrimination
• socioeconomic incorporation
• job attitudes
• career prospects
• racialization
• racial/ethnic awareness

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank James Joo-Jin Kim Program in Korean Studies and Pollak Research Foundation at the University of Pennsylvania for providing splendid resources. I am also very grateful to the following colleagues who have offered helpful comments on earlier drafts: Emily Hannum, Chenoa Flippen, Jorida Papakroni, and Wyatt Dodd.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. For more on discriminatory practices of the host country nationals, see Sanchez and Brock, “Outcomes of Perceived Discrimination among Hispanic Employees,” 70419; and Verwiebe et al., “I Have to Be Very Good in What I Do,” 2468–90.

2. See Doyle and Kao, “Are Racial Identities Of Multiracials Stable,’ 40523.

3. Berry, “Acculturation as Varieties of Adaptation,” 925.

4. Portes, “The Rise of Ethnicity,” 38397.

5. Ono, “Assimilation, Ethnic Competition, and Ethnic Identities,” 72645.

6. Diehl et al., “Between Ethnic Options and Ethnic Boundaries,” 23660.

7. Waters, Black Identities.

8. Itzigsohn et al., “Immigrant Incorporation and Racial Identity,” 5078.

9. Okamoto, “Toward a Theory of Panethnicity,” 81142.

10. Nee et al., “Job Transitions in an Immigrant Metropolis,” 84972.

11. See Fernandez, “Asian Indian Americans,” 11949.

12. See Sanders and Nee, “Limits of Ethnic Solidarity in the Enclave Economy,” 74573; and Wilson and Portes, “Immigrant Enclaves,” 295319.

13. See note 10 above.

14. Massey and Riosmena, “Undocumented Migration from Latin America,” 294321.

15. See McGinnity and Gijsberts, “A Threat in the Air,” 26189.

16. Fernandez, “Asian Indian Americans,” 11949.

17. De Castro et al., “How Immigrant Workers Experience Workplace Problems,” 24958.

18. Portes and Zhou, “Gaining the Upper Hand,” 491522; and Sanders and Nee, “Limits of Ethnic Solidarity in the Enclave Economy,” 74573.

19. See Alberts, “Changes in Ethnic Solidarity in Cuban Miami,” 23148; and Nee et al., “Job Transitions in an Immigrant Metropolis,” 84972.

20. Bonacich, “A Theory of Middleman Minorities,” 58394; and Portes and Zhou, “Gaining the Upper Hand,” 491522.

21. See Sanders and Nee, “Limits of Ethnic Solidarity in the Enclave Economy,” 74573.

22. Fong and Ooka, “The Social Consequences of Participating in the Ethnic Economy,” 12546; and Sanders and Nee, “Limits of Ethnic Solidarity in the Enclave Economy,” 74573.

23. Sanders and Sernau, “Asian Immigrants’ Reliance,” 281314; and Xie and Gough, “Ethnic Enclaves and the Earnings of Immigrants,” 1293315.

24. See Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America, 111.

25. Locke et al., “Does Monitoring Improve Labor Standards,” 131.

26. Peltokorpi and Vaara, “Language Policies and Practices in Wholly Owned Foreign Subsidiaries,” 80833.

27. Karreman et al., “Location Choices of Chinese Multinationals in Europe,” 13161.

28. See Lee, “Employment and Earnings in High-Tech Ethnic Niches,” 74784.

29. Hannan and Freeman, Organizational Ecology, 5460.

30. Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America, 111.

31. This statistics is based on Census 2020.

32. Chiswick and Miller, High-Skilled Immigration, 11154.

33. Beaverstock, “Transnational Elites in the City,” 245–68; and Salt and Findlay, “International Migration of Highly-skilled Manpower,” 159–78.

34. Counihan, “Private Actors in Highly Skilled Migration,” 77–81.

35. See Waters, Black Identities.

36. See Diehl et al., “Between Ethnic Options and Ethnic Boundaries,” 23660; and Ono, “Assimilation, Ethnic Competition, and Ethnic Identities,” 72645.

37. See Itzigsohn et al., “Immigrant Incorporation and Racial Identity,” 5078; Okamoto, “Toward a Theory of Panethnicity,” 81142.

38. Berry, Acculturation, 925.

39. See note 15 above.

40. See note 4 above.

41. See note 38 above.

42. See “The Rise of Ethnicity,” 38397.

43. See Blume et al., “Labor Market Transitions of Immigrants,” 881908.

44. Hofstede, “The Cultural Relativity of Organizational Practices and Theories,” 7589.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Eunbi Kim

Eunbi Kim is an Assistant Professor of International Business in the Business, Organizations & Society Department at Franklin & Marshall College, US. She obtained her PhD and MA in Sociology at the University of Pennsylvania, US. Her research interests include foreign direct investment, multinational enterprises, human capital transfer, and immigration.