Influence of music on driver psychology and safety-relevant behaviours: a multi-study inductive content analysis

Figures & data

Table 1. Proportion of ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ answers for each question (frequencies indicated in parentheses).

	N	Yes	No	Occasionally	Conditionally
Q1	107	76% (81)	13% (14)	6% (6)	6% (6)
Q2	105	71% (75)	27% (28)	0% (0)	2% (2)
Q3	106	47% (50)	25% (27)	14% (15)	13% (14)

Note. Q = question. Q1 was about using music to influence emotional state. Q2 was about using music to change perception of the driving experience. Q3 was about using music to drive more safely.

Table 2. Results of the inductive content analysis.

Raw data themes (k = 82)		First-order themes (k = 22)		Second-order themes (k = 8)		General dimensions (k = 3)
Maintaining concentration on the road Keeps me alert Paying more attention with certain music More focused Thinking clearer in general		Concentration		Attentional focus		Cognition
Can get carried away in the music Can make my mind wander Less distracted by my thoughts Stops me from zoning out		Distraction
I couldn’t hear the traffic as well It can mute the environment		Environmental stimuli		Awareness
I’m more aware of my surroundings I’m better able to see things coming I might not see a hazard coming		Hazard perception
Can make me more frustrated Annoyed by slower drivers more easily I had less road rage Loud music can make me more aggressive Music stops me from lashing out Without music, I am more irritable towards others		Aggression		Anxiety		Affective state (continues)
Can make me feel uneasy Helps me feel calm rather than nervous I was not as jumpy Less likely to cause panic Reduces anxiety Faster music made me a little more impatient		Tension
Raw data themes (k = 82)		First-order themes (k = 25)		Second-order themes (k = 8)		General dimensions (k = 3)
It made me feel less sleepy Music can make me drowsy The music helped to prevent fatigue Without music I tire faster		Fatigue		Lethargy		Affective state (continues)
Makes me feel down and depressed Slower songs make me feel more down		Sadness
Slow music made me over-relaxed Less switched on		Sluggish
Keeps me entertained More positive and forgot about my worries Makes the experience more fun Music makes me feel happy Puts me in a good mood Music adds to the enjoyment of driving Uplifts the mood Music can change my mood immediately		Cheerfulness		Energised (continues)
Helps to relieve boredom Influences my emotional state Less monotonous Maintain a healthier spirit Makes the experience more enjoyable Passes the time quicker		Enthusiasm
Raw data themes (k = 82)		First-order themes (k = 25)		Second-order themes (k = 8)		General dimensions (k = 3)
I feel energised with music Made me feel overconfident Makes me feel excited Music engages my mind Stimulates the brain		Excitement		Energised		Affective state
Changes my mindset and imagination Driving with more confidence Keeps me interested in driving More refreshing		Positive mindset
Improves my patience when I drive More composed Stops me getting over-excited I find it calming		Calmness		Relaxation
Gentle music helps reduce my stress levels Music released tension The music made me more relaxed		Stress relief
I didn’t notice when I was speeding Makes me want to drive faster		Increased speed		Driving negative		Driving behaviour (continues)
I found myself overtaking more often Makes you drive faster and more dangerously Fast music made me more aggressive/reckless		Risk-taking
Made more mistakes Makes your driving more unsafe		Reduced safety
Raw data themes (k = 82)		First-order themes (k = 25)		Second-order themes (k = 8)		General dimensions (k = 3)
Leads to more rational decisions Speed up my reaction to sudden hazards		Decision making		Driving positive		Driving behaviour
I feel more comfortable listening to music Makes my driving more accurate Stops me from driving erratically Better fuel economy when I listen to slow music		Driving control
Affected how cautiously I drove More courteous With music I drive safer		Safer driving
Classical music helps me stick to speed limits Driving slower		Speed management