Traditional and Modern Meditation Practices in Shan Buddhist Communities

ABSTRACT

This article explores how meditation is inculcated throughout the life of Shan Buddhists using poetic phrasing and texts, culminating in several forms of meditation as part of the practice of temple-sleeping undertaken by lay Buddhist seniors from the age of 40 upwards. I look at how the poetic texts, lik loung, that form the basis of temple-sleeping practice, may have shifted in content in the 19th to 20th centuries to focus on meditation topics, in a move parallel to the development of vipassanā in lowland Burma in reaction to the threat colonialism posed to Buddhism. I then document the rise of separate vipassanā meditation centres in Shan regions from the 1930s and their ambiguous status as either representatives of Burmese hegemony or drivers of Shan revival. I note the influence of Shan lik loung on practice at such centres, as well as a more recent development, the uptake of vipassanā within temple-sleeping contexts.

Acknowledgements

This paper is built on chapter two of the author’s PhD thesis (Khur-Yearn 2012), which is the fruition of a research project carried out under the supervision and guidance of Dr Kate Crosby at SOAS University of London (now Professor at King’s College, London). The author is enormously grateful to her, not only for her criticism and support, which have been crucial to his analytical thinking, but also for her guidance of academic excellence that has been so helpful to the author in shaping up his piece of work as a better publication. The author is also grateful to anthropologists Professor Nicola Tannenbaum and Professor Nancy Eberhardt, for sharing their experiences in their groundbreaking and ongoing work on Shan Buddhism and culture in the Maehongson Province over the past four decades, especially on the Shan temple-sleeping and meditation practices in the villages near Maehongson (Tannenbaum 2001; Eberhardt 2006, 2017), which have greatly inspired the author to observe similar Shan practices in other areas/regions, notably at three Shan Buddhist temples for this paper. I would also like to thank Dr Andrew Skilton for his heavy involvement with the remarkable project for an online catalogue of Shan manuscripts, many of them on meditation (senmai.bodleian.ox.ac.uk). Finally, the author would like to make a record here with heartfelt thanks to the poetry-readers, Zarays, temple abbots and local laypeople in the Shan Buddhist communities of Northern Thailand and Panglog area of Shan State for their kind cooperation during fieldwork and also for their hard work to maintain the traditions of religious ritual and meditation practice, which are all meaningful to this paper.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. This article builds on and updates material from chapter two of my PhD thesis (Khur-Yearn 2012). The Romanisation of Shan terms used in this article is different to that used in my thesis; here I follow the sound of words as more commonly used by other researchers, while those used in my thesis followed the ways how the Shan scripts are written and the standard of the Library of Congress Romanisation system.

2. Personal communication with Nicola Tannenbaum 2012.

3. We also find the phrase kwam wauk mathan, ‘poetic words on meditation’, in the context of more formal Shan poetic texts, for example, in the lik loung text Ma hok tua ‘The Six Horses’, a 19th-century Shan manuscript from the Wat Papao Collection in Chiang Mai, Thailand. (The digital version of this manuscript is available online from the Digital Library of Northern Thai Manuscripts, www.lannamanuscripts.net.)

4. From my own experience. This is perhaps similar to when English people say ‘bless you’ to someone when he/she sneezes.

5. Personal communication with Nicola Tannenbaum 2012. See also Eberhardt (2017, 295–296).

6. ‘Zayat’, a Burmese term equal to Shan word ‘salaup’ or Pali word ‘sālā’, was also used by Shan of that time as recorded by Leslie Milne (1910, 106).

7. Other members of the group were Kate Crosby (project leader), Nicola Tannenbaum, Nancy Eberhardt and On Khur-Yearn. Huai Pha village is Nancy Eberhardt’s long-term fieldwork site.

8. Personal correspondence with Nicola Tannenbaum 2012.

9. Wat Pang Mu was founded in 2010 BE (1467) according ‘the History of Buddhist Temples in Thailand’ published by the Thai Sangha Council. A copy of this book is kept by the abbot of the temple. However, the oldest remaining building of the temple is the sīmā or ordination hall, which was built in 2400 BE (1857). The list of known names of the last 10 abbots of the temple only dates back to 2405 BE. (Interviews with the abbot and a lay reader, Zaray Sang Ken, 2006.)

10. For more information on Buddhist precept days, see Tannenbaum (2001, 21).

11. The term wā or wāsā is derived from Pali ‘vassa’ or Sanskrit ‘varṣa’ literally meaning ‘rain.’ The Thais follow the Sanskrit term varṣa and pronounce it in Thai accent ‘phan-sā’. For more information on the Buddhist rains retreat, see Gombrich (1991, 326–7).

12. On what becoming a temple sleeper means in term of a longer term change of status and position in society, see Eberhardt (2006, 157–160). The Eight Precepts are: 1) refraining from killing, 2) refraining from stealing, 3) refraining from sexual misconduct, 4) refraining from telling a lie, 5) refraining from taking alcohol, 6) refraining from eating solid food at the wrong time (after mid-day until sunrise), 7) refraining from singing or listening to music and dancing as well as using make-up and perfume and 8) refraining from using a higher seat or bed. For more information on the Eight Precepts, see Aṅguttara Nikāya, No. 8.41 translated Hare (1935, 170–171), and Gombrich (1991, 77–79).

13. Of the four wan sin or Buddhist holy days, the full moon and the dark moon days are considered as bigger wan sin. Again, there other differences of status between the bigger wan sin. For instance, during the 3 months’ rains retreat, the first day and the last day of the rains retreat, both of which are full moon, are considered more important than other wan sin.

14. On the programme for temple sleepers, see also Tannenbaum (2001, 139–143) and Eberhardt (2006, 157–159).

15. There are variety of formula for sharing merit, most of which are in Shan poetry although some are also mixed with Pali in the style of Burmese nissaya, word-by-word embedded commentary. Recently, Khuwa Bunchum’s formula of sharing merit has been widely used in Shan community diaspora, and most notably the Pali term bhāvanā, which refers to meditation in this case, is also used in the formula. For the full text of Khuwa Bunchum’s formula for transferring merit in Shan script, see the Appendix Five of my thesis (Khur-Yearn 2012). On Khuwa Bunchum see below.

16. All temple sleepers have to bring their own bedding, which consists of a mat, a pillow and a blanket (also a mosquito net in some areas, where there are mosquitoes). See also Tannenbaum (2001, 139–143). Tannenbaum also learned from temple sleepers during her fieldwork that people do not take naps until after lunch, because if they sleep before lunch, the phi li (devatā), who writes down the names of the temple sleepers, will miss them. Personal correspondence with Tannenbaum in 2012.

17. Wat Pang Mu also has a large collection of lik loung manuscripts (see Khur-Yearn 2012, Chapter One).

18. On the training of zaray, see Crosby and Khur-Yearn (2010)

19. I myself received some training during my final year staying at Wat Panghoo but did not have an opportunity to perform any recitation as I left the temple soon afterwards for my further education at temples in other towns that had no temple-sleeping practice.

20. For the formula in Shan script, see Khur-Yearn (2012): Appendix Four. I recorded this formula from a temple sleeper at a Thai-Burma border village, where the Shan tradition of temple-sleeping is maintained to this day.

21. There are numerous interpretations of the 108 beads, on which see Dubin (2009). Here, the practice is said to be complete by counting 100 and the remaining are said to cover errors or omissions.

22. Although rosaries are not commonly found in Sri Lankan Buddhism these days, the practice of counting rosaries with the word ‘arahaṃ’ was also found among Sinhalese Buddhists in the 19th century as observed by L. A. Waddell (1896), suggesting that this was once a much more common practice across the Theravada world.

23. On the use of the word arahaṃ in other forms of Buddhist meditation and ritual practice, see Crosby (2000, 147).

24. Information acquired from SOAS research group’s zaray survey as part of ‘Shan Buddhism at the Borderlands Project’ in Maehongson, 2009.

25. The name zawti, probably from Pali joti, ‘light’ or ‘radiance’, was recorded by Sangermano (1893, 111) as ‘Zodi.’ Most Burmese and Shan pronounce it as ‘zawti’ although some would pronounce it ‘zodi’. For more information on the Zawti sect, see Htay Hlaing (1991, 367–386) and Mendelson (1975, 73–77 & 231–234). Neither the Zawti sect, nor the other Shan sect, the Khun/Tham sect, are among the nine sects officially recognised by the government of the Union of Burma in 1981 (Ashin and Crosby 2017, 209).

26. This requires confirmation, which should be possible by conducting research into the long preambles that often occur at the start of lik loung and identify the occasion for which the text in question was composed or copied.

27. For more on both lists and for a detailed discussion of Sao Amat Long’s text see Khur-Yearn (2012). Both tables are simplified forms of the lists provided in Khur-Yearn (2012), Chapter Two.

28. Houtman (1990, 289, 308).

29. Sao Shwe Thaik was the ruling prince of Yawnghwe state and became the first president of the Union of Burma after its independence 1948. He also played an important role in the Sixth Buddhist Council. For more information on the biography of Sao Shwe Thaik (or Chao Shwe Thaike), see his children’s autobiographies, Yawnghwe (1987).

30. Thaton, called by Shan as Sathung, is located in modern Mon State, between the cities of Pegu (Bago) and Molemine, of Burma. It is a historical town within the area that has been identified by some scholars as Suvaṇṇabhūmi, to which Emperor Asoka of the 3rd century BC is said to have sent two senior monks, Soṇa and Uttara, for Buddhist missionary work in the region. See, for example, Donald K. Swearer’s discussion of such legendary accounts of the arrival of Buddhism in mainland South East Asia in ‘Thailand’ (2004).

31. The Sāsanānuggaha Organisation, which is the root of Mahasi Meditation centres, was founded by Sir U Thwin and Prime Minister U Nu in November 1947, about three months after the establishment Mingun Kammathan Centre in Lang Khur, Shan State. See MMA (1967) and MMA (1998). More information can also be found on the Mahasi Centre’s website: http://www.mahasi.org.mm.

32. For more details of Mingun Sayadaw’s biography, see Houtman (1990, 289).

33. MMA (1998, 17–18). U Myat Kyaw was formerly known as U Pandidama when he was a monk, see Houtman (1990, 44). Another well-known pupil of U Nārada is Mahasi Sayadaw, whose meditation centres are found through Burma and internationally. See Kornfield (1977, 51) and Kyaw in the volume.

34. Khun Htun later became one of U Myat Kyaw’s successors for teaching meditation generally among Shan. MMA (1998, 19–20).

35. Personal communication Venerable Pandita August 2018. Ven. Pandita is an active MMA leader and current Abbot of a newly built MMA Branch in the Kayah State, bordering Shan State. He also told me that there is currently a plan to open a new MMA branch in Namsang Township in central Shan State.

36. There are 24 books written by U Nārada, namely 1. Peṭakopadesa-aṭṭhakathā ‘The Commentary of the Principle of Pitaka’, 2. The Peḍakopadesaṭṭhakathā nissaya translation (in Burmese), 3 volumes, 3. Sajjetāvidhi-visajjanā (in Pali), 4. Ārambhā-vidhi-visajjanā (Pali), 5. Visuddhi-magga-aṭṭhakathā nissaya (new edition), 6. Taw lay saeh aphwin ‘the commentary of 40 kinds of forests’, 7. Milinda-pañha-aṭṭhakathā (in Pali), 8. Nibbāna-kathā, 9. Nibbān lan nyun desanā, 10. Nibbān Sa Tan, 11. Satipaṭṭhān Sa Tan, 12. Satipaccaye – vinicchaya-muha, 13. Kathina-vinicchaya, 14. Kathin-nissaya 15. Phala-samapat, 16. Mahā-saḷā-yatana-sutta-nissaya, 17. Mūla-pariyāya-sutta-nissaya, 18. Pādāpādaraha-vinicchaya, 19. Paḍiññāta-karana-vinicchaya, 20. Thein Khan ‘the role of ordination hall’, 21. Vipassanā-nyān-zin-gyam-gyi, 22. Anussaya-saing-yā, 23. Atirit-pyu-bon, and 24. Vipassanā-nyān-man-ya-ye. U Myat Kyaw’s works are: 1. Gambhīrattha-pakasanī-gyam, 2. Vipassanā-dīpanī-gyam, 3. Nibbāna-magga-dīpanī-gyam, 4. Vipassanā-let-zwe-gyam, 5. Vipassanā-ḍīkā-gyam (2 volumes), 6. Ariyā-magga-dīpanī-gyam, 7. Gambhīra-dhamma-desanā-gyam (3 volumes), 8. Dhamma-kathika-let-zwe-gyam (2 volumes), 9. Abhidhamma-desanā-gyam (2 volumes), and Wut-yut-zin ‘Texts of Chanting’. U Sucintā’s work, written under the guidance of U Khun Htun, is Satipaṭṭhān-dīpanī (in Shan). For the list in Burmese and Shan scripts, see MMA (1967, 78–80 & 106–107).

37. I obtained a copy of this recording in CD Rom from Sao-sra Nandiya of Wat Muoi Taw, Panglong during my fieldwork in 2004. I am grateful to Sao-sra Nandiya for his generosity, giving me a copy of each of his CD collections on the recitation of lik loung texts and other Shan Buddhist sermons.

38. The person whom I here call Zai Long is in fact a very influential figure in the Shan literacy movement, who after 1988 was also an active member of a Shan political party.

39. Such claims were common and widespread in Shan communities of Shan State in the 1970s and 1980s.

40. Note that Sao-sra, Saokhu and Sao Khuwa are Shan terms for the titles used in front of monks’ names to indicate their ranks and the degree of respect afforded them. ‘Sao-sra’ usually refers to the abbot of a temple, but sometimes it also refers to a senior monk who has been a monk at least for 20 years. However, the monk who has been appointed an abbot of a temple is called Sao-sra even though he may be less than 20 years in the monkhood. ‘Saokhu’ refers to a teacher or scholar monk, while ‘Khuwa’ (also pronounced as ‘Kruba’ in Thai communities) specifically refers to ascetic monks, usually who follow the Yuan Buddhist tradition in the eastern Shan State and northern Thailand.

41. This loung, which is a numeral marker, is different from loung ‘great’ as in lik loung ‘great writings’. The pronunciation differs in tone.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jotika Khur-Yearn

Jotika Khur-Yearn was born in 1969 and grew up in Panghoo village, Panglong, Shan State, the Union of Myanmar. He started his primary education at Wat Panghoo, and went on to continue his higher education at monasteries in the cities including Yangon and Mandalay. After graduating Dhammacariya, the government’s first Buddhist degree in Myanmar and MA from Buddhist and Pali University of Sri Lanka, he did his research for PhD on Shan Buddhist manuscript literatures under the supervision of Professor Kate Crosby at SOAS University of London; he also obtained an MSc in Library Science from City University of London. He has been involved in a number of research projects on Shan Buddhism and Shan manuscript cultures including the cataloguing of Shan manuscripts in Shan State, Thailand and the United Kingdom. He currently works as Subject Librarian at SOAS Library, while also continuing his research works on Shan manuscripts.