Geographies of the veil: violent encounters in urban public spaces in Malmö, Sweden

Abstract

Encounters between strangers, as different users of public spaces, are one of the core subjects for discussion in relation to orders in the public space. The empirical material presented in this article illustrates power relations in public spaces of Sweden, which gives a specific national and nationalist framing. This article is based on interviews with 19 Muslim women, all of whom wear the hijab. The aim of this article was to illuminate the neglected violence Muslim women are exposed to and to investigate violent public encounters from the point of view of female Muslim citizens. This recounting of encounters strives to understand the ‘lived experiences of pain’ [Ahmed, S. (2001). The organisation of hate. Law and Critique, 12, 360] and what hate is doing in terms of the effects of hate crimes. First, the concept of affect and economy of hate is elaborated on, after which the meaning of violence is developed in relation to place and space. By showing how frequent such gendered and Islamophobic violence is, in its different forms, while at the same time being largely an overlooked form of violence, the empirical material implicates that such acts of everyday violence work to establish and maintain a hegemonic social, spatial and political order.

Geografías del velo: encuentros violentos en los espacios públicos urbanos en Malmö, Suecia

Los encuentros entre extraños, como usuarios diferentes de los espacios públicos, son uno de los temas centrales de debate en relación con el orden en el espacio público. El material empírico presentado en este artículo ilustra las relaciones de poder en el espacio público de Suecia, lo que da un encuadre nacional y nacionalista específico. Este artículo se basa en entrevistas con diecinueve mujeres musulmanas, las cuales utilizan el velo. El objetivo es poner de manifiesto la violencia descuidada a la cual las mujeres musulmanas están expuestas e investigar encuentros públicos violentos desde el punto de vista de los ciudadanos musulmanes de sexo femenino. Este relato de encuentros se esfuerza por comprender las ‘experiencias de dolor vividas’ (Ahmed 2001:360) y lo que el odio está haciendo en relación con los efectos de los crímenes de odio. En primer lugar se elabora el concepto de afecto y la economía del odio, luego se desarrolla el significado de la violencia en relación con el lugar y el espacio. Al demostrar cuán frecuentes estos casos de violencia de género e islamófoba son, en sus diferentes formas, mientras que al mismo tiempo son en gran medida formas de violencia ignoradas, el material empírico implica que tales actos de violencia cotidiana sirven para establecer y mantener un orden hegemónico social, del espacio y político.

Géographies du voile: confrontations dans les espaces publics urbains à Malmö en Suède

Les contacts entre inconnus, en tant qu'utilisateurs différents des espaces publics, sont un des sujets de discussion principaux en ce qui concerne l'ordre dans l'espace public. La documentation empirique présentée dans cet article illustre les relations de force dans les espaces publics en Suède, ce qui apporte un cadre spécifique national et nationaliste. Cet article s'appuie sur des entretiens avec 19 femmes musulmanes, qui portent toutes le hijab. Le but est d'éclairer la violence oubliée à laquelle les femmes musulmanes sont exposées et d'enquêter sur les attaques en public, du point de vue de citoyennes musulmanes. Ce récit de confrontations s'efforce de comprendre « les expériences douloureuses vécues » (Ahmed 2001:360) et les effets de la haine sur les crimes haineux. Tout d'abord, on entre dans les détails du concept de l'affect et de l'économie de haine, et ensuite la signification de la violence est développée par rapport au lieu et à l'espace. En démontrant à quel point cette violence islamophobe à l'encontre des femmes est fréquente, sous toutes ses formes, et combien c'est une forme de violence en grande partie négligée, la documentation concrète démontre que de tels actes de violence quotidienne permettent d'établir et de maintenir un ordre hégémonique social, spatial et politique.

Keywords::

• violent encounters
• Muslim women
• public space

Keywords::

• confrontations
• femmes musulmanes
• espace public

Keywords::

• encuentros violentos
• mujeres musulmanas
• espacio público

Acknowledgements

The research was conducted within the project ‘Exploring Urban Violence(s). A Study on Space, Power and Social Sustainability’ in collaboration with Prof. Irene Molina at Uppsala University and Prof. Diana Mulinari at Lund University. I am grateful to have such inspiring and sharp minds to work with. The interviews were conducted together with research assistant Johanna Sixtensson who performed the interviews with the author as her supervisor. Sixtensson also transcribed the interviews and made a summary report in Swedish. My thanks also go to the interlocutors who shared their experiences of violent encounters and everyday life experiences. I am also grateful to the editors and the anonymous reviewers at Social and Cultural Geography for their insightful and constructive remarks.

Notes

^1. Article in the daily paper Sydsvenska dagbladet, http://www.sydsvenskan.se/sverige/stenen-i-ryggen-blev-droppen/ 8 April 2011. In August 2012, similar events occurred in Forserum, another small town, where citizens with Somali backgrounds told of violent incidents of abuse, stones being thrown at them, and other incidents, resulting in large groups having moved away from the village.

^2. In 2005, the Netherlands was the first country where a law prohibiting the public use of the ‘burqa’ won a parliamentary majority. Still, only 0.002% of the population wore veils covering the face. The aim of the law was to achieve settings ‘where no woman yet been seen wearing a face-veil’ (Moors 2009, p. 399).

^3. The Swedish National Agency for Education; http://www.skolverket.se/polopoly_fs/1.165937!Menu/article/attachment/Helt%C3%A4ckande%20sl%C3%B6ja%20slutlig.pdf(4 April 2012).

^4. A quotation from Bourdieu illustrates his complex understanding of symbolic violence; ‘[t]he very lifestyle of the holders of power contributes to the power that makes it possible, because its true conditions of possibility remain unrecognized…’ (1990, p. 139).

^5. A symbolic reference to the Latin triumvirate (‘of three men’) which was a political regime dominated by three powerful individuals, each a triumvir.

^6. A similar broad understanding could be found in the definition from the World Report on Violence and Health (WRVH): ‘the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation.’ This has been taken further by Violence Prevention Alliance; see http://www.who.int/violenceprevention/approach/definition/en/index.html (14 September 2012).

^7. The number of emigrants to Denmark has decreased since 2011. This migration is closely related to fluctuations in the labour and housing markets and other cyclical economic aspects. A major change in relation to emigration in Denmark had to do with a law adopted in 2002 stating that an emigrant to Denmark who was married to a Danish citizen had to be at least 24 years of age to be allowed into the country. Living in Sweden temporarily is locally known as ‘svensklösningen’ [the Swedish solution].

^8. Islamic Center; http://www.mosken.se/historik.htm (4 June 2012).

^9. According to the Swedish Commission for Government Support to Faith Communities, http://www.sst.a.se/ (23 March 2011).

^10.http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-europe/#1 (11 January 2013).

^11. In Turkey, the unveiling became an important symbol of women's emancipation as a means of creating the modern state (Göle, 1996).

^12. This has historically given these countries a positive position in conflict mediation and as especially suitable actors in international peace processes (Keskinen et al., 2009).

^13. The Swedish Integration Board (closed down in 2007) conducted a survey of 90 Muslim women wearing veils, focusing on their experiences of discrimination (Englund 2006). In 2003, a report based on dialogues with religious organizations, including a survey of 176 Muslims on their experiences after 11 September 2002 was published (Larsson, 2003). In 2005, the city of Gothenburg completed a study which included interviews with 11 Muslims, 7 of whom were women (Högfeldt, 2005). See also Gardell (2011).

^14. There are now studies of converts (Månsson, 2002; Roald, 2004; Sultán Sjöqvist 2006), young women negotiating gender norms in relation to religious activities (Karlsson Minganti, 2007), and research on how Muslims ‘live’ and perform Islam (Ouis & Roald, 2003, see also Roald, 2001). This research illustrates the variation of religious practices and performances in a transnational context, and shows how these practices challenge social norms in the West. Similar studies has been made in other European countries (Dwyer, 1999, 2000, 2008; Fadil, 2009; Koyuncu Lorasdağı, 2009; Reece, 1996; Watson, 1994). In such research, the role of women (and the veil) is sometimes addressed in relation to Islamophobia, xenophobia, and discrimination (Bullock, 2002, Secor, 2002, see also Koefoed & Simonsen, 2010).

^15.http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,139614,00.html, 6 January 2012, Broadcast in 2004.

^16. The research was conducted with research assistant Johanna Sixtensson who performed the interviews with the author as her supervisor. Sixtensson also transcribed the interviews and made a summary report in Swedish.

^17. All names are fictive.

^18. All quotations were translated by the author.

Additional information

Funding

This research project was financed by FORMAS (The Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning) [grant number 2006-76-7549-35].